This is a modern-English version of A Complete Grammar of Esperanto, originally written by Reed, Ivy Kellerman. It has been thoroughly updated, including changes to sentence structure, words, spelling, and grammar—to ensure clarity for contemporary readers, while preserving the original spirit and nuance. If you click on a paragraph, you will see the original text that we modified, and you can toggle between the two versions.

Scroll to the bottom of this page and you will find a free ePUB download link for this book.

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:

The Esperanto alphabet contains 28 characters. These are the characters of English, but with "q", "w", "x", and "y" removed, and six diacritical letters added. The diacritical letters are "c", "g", "h", "j" and "s" with circumflexes (or "hats", as Esperantists fondly call them), and "u" with a breve. Zamenhof himself suggested that where the diacritical letters caused difficulty, one could instead use "ch", "gh", "hh", "jh", "sh" and "u". A plain ASCII file is one such place; there are no ASCII codes for Esperanto's special letters.

The Esperanto alphabet has 28 characters. It includes the letters of the English alphabet, but without "q," "w," "x," and "y," and adds six letters with diacritics. These diacritical letters are "c," "g," "h," "j," and "s" with circumflexes (or "hats," as Esperantists like to call them), and "u" with a breve. Zamenhof suggested that if the diacritical letters were problematic, you could use "ch," "gh," "hh," "jh," "sh," and "u" instead. A plain ASCII file is one of those cases; there are no ASCII codes for these special letters in Esperanto.

A COMPLETE

A FULL

GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO

ESPERANTO GRAMMAR

THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE

GLOBAL LANGUAGE

WITH
GRADED EXERCISES FOR READING AND TRANSLATION
TOGETHER WITH FULL VOCABULARIES

WITH
GRADED EXERCISES FOR READING AND TRANSLATION
ALONG WITH COMPLETE VOCABULARIES

BY
IVY KELLERMAN, A.M., Ph.D.

BY
IVY KELLERMAN, M.A., Ph.D.

MEMBER OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND CHAIRMAN OF EXAMINATIONS
FOR THE ESPERANTO ASSOCIATION OF NORTH AMERICA, MEMBER
OF THE INTERNATIONAL LINGVA KOMITATO

MEMBER OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND CHAIR OF EXAMINATIONS
FOR THE ESPERANTO ASSOCIATION OF NORTH AMERICA, MEMBER
OF THE INTERNATIONAL LINGVA KOMITATO


TO

TO

DR. L. L. ZAMENHOF

Dr. L. L. Zamenhof

THE AUTHOR OF
ESPERANTO

THE CREATOR OF
ESPERANTO


PREFACE.

This volume has been prepared to meet a twofold need. An adequate presentation of the International Language has become an imperative necessity. Such presentation, including full and accurate grammatical explanations, suitably graded reading lessons, and similarly graded material for translation from English, has not heretofore been accessible within the compass of a single volume, or in fact within the compass of any two or three volumes.

This book has been created to address a twofold need. It’s essential to have a proper introduction to the International Language. This introduction, which includes comprehensive and accurate grammar explanations, appropriately leveled reading lessons, and similar material for translating from English, has not previously been available in a single book or even across two or three books.

The combination of grammar and reader here offered is therefore unique. It is to furnish not merely an introduction to Esperanto, or a superficial acquaintance with it, but a genuine understanding of the language and mastery of its use without recourse to additional textbooks, readers, etc. In other words, this one volume affords as complete a knowledge of Esperanto as several years' study of a grammar and various readers will accomplish for any national language. Inflection, word-formation and syntax are presented clearly and concisely, yet with a degree of completeness and in a systematic order that constitute a new feature. Other points worthy of note are the following:

The combination of grammar and readings provided here is therefore unique. It aims to give not just an introduction to Esperanto or a superficial understanding of it, but a true grasp of the language and mastery of its usage without needing additional textbooks or readers. In other words, this single volume offers as comprehensive a knowledge of Esperanto as several years of studying a grammar and various readers would provide for any national language. Inflection, word formation, and syntax are explained clearly and concisely, yet with a level of completeness and in a systematic order that set it apart. Other noteworthy features include the following:

The reasons for syntactical usages are given, instead of mere statements that such usages exist. For example, clauses of purpose and of result are really explained, instead of being dismissed with the unsatisfactory remark that "the imperative follows por ke," or the "use of tiel ... ke and tia ... ke must be distinguished from that of tiel ... kiel and tia ... kia," etc., with but little intimation of when and why por ke, tiel ... ke and tia ... ke are likely to occur.

The reasons for syntax usage are explained, rather than just stating that they exist. For instance, clauses of purpose and result are genuinely clarified, instead of being brushed off with the unsatisfying comment that "the imperative follows por ke," or that the "use of tiel ... ke and tia ... ke must be distinguished from tiel ... kiel and tia ... kia," with minimal guidance on when and why por ke, tiel ... ke, and tia ... ke are likely to occur.

Affixes are not mentioned until some familiarity with the general character of the language is assured, as well as the possession of a fair vocabulary. They are introduced gradually, with adequate explanation and illustration. Of importance in connection with word-formation is an element distinctly new—the explanation and classification of compound words. Such words, like affixes, are withheld until the use of simple words is familiar.

Affixes aren't discussed until there's a solid understanding of the language's overall structure and a good vocabulary. They're introduced bit by bit, with clear explanations and examples. A key new aspect related to word formation is the explanation and classification of compound words. Similar to affixes, these words aren't covered until using simple words is comfortable.

Another new feature is the gradual introduction of correlative words in their logical order, and in their proper grammatical categories, before they are called "correlatives," or tabulated. The tabulation finally presented is a real classification, with regard to the meaning and grammatical character of the words, not merely an arbitrary alphabetical arrangement. The use of primary adverbs precedes the explanation of adverb derivation; prepositions, especially de, da, je, etc., receive careful attention, also the verb system, and the differentiation of words whose English equivalents are ambiguous.

Another new feature is the gradual introduction of correlative words in their logical order and appropriate grammatical categories before they’re referred to as "correlatives" or organized. The final organization presented is a genuine classification concerning the meaning and grammatical nature of the words, not just a random alphabetical listing. The use of basic adverbs comes before the explanation of adverb formation; prepositions, especially de, da, je, etc., are given close attention, along with the verb system and the distinction between words whose English equivalents are unclear.

A general characteristic of obvious advantage is that almost without exception new forms and constructions are illustrated by means of words or roots already familiar. Likewise, the new words or roots of each lesson recur at least once in the next lesson, and usually in some lesson thereafter as well. Each reading exercise gives not only a thorough application of the grammatical principles of the lesson, but a review of those in the preceding lesson, and no use is made of words or constructions not yet explained. The comparative ease of the language, and the lack of necessity for reciting paradigms, permit the reading exercises to be long enough for the student to feel that he has really mastered something. These exercises are further unique, in that each after the fifth is a coherent narrative, and nearly every one is a story of genuine interest in itself. These stories, if bound separately, would alone constitute a reader equivalent to those used in first and second year work in national languages. (For list of titles, see Table of Contents.)

A general characteristic of obvious advantage is that almost without exception, new forms and constructions are shown using words or roots that are already familiar. Similarly, the new words or roots from each lesson appear at least once in the following lesson, and usually in some later lessons as well. Each reading exercise not only thoroughly applies the grammatical principles of the lesson but also reviews those from the previous lesson, and no words or constructions that haven't been explained are used. The relative ease of the language and the lack of necessity for memorizing paradigms allow the reading exercises to be long enough for the student to genuinely feel like they have mastered something. These exercises are also unique in that each one after the fifth is a coherent narrative, and nearly every one is an engaging story on its own. If these stories were bound separately, they would create a reader equivalent to those used in first and second-year courses in national languages. (For list of titles, see Table of Contents.)

The second element of the twofold need which this volume meets is the necessity for a presentation of Esperanto, not as a thing apart, but in that form which will make it most serviceable as an introduction to national tongues. A stepping-stone to both ancient and modern languages, Esperanto may render invaluable aid, and pave the way for surmounting the many difficulties confronting both student and teacher. Through Esperanto, the labor in the acquirement of these languages may be reduced in the same proportion in which the pleasure and thoroughness of such acquirement are increased. For this reason, the grammatical constructions of Esperanto are here explained as consistently as possible in accordance with the usage of national languages, especially those in the school curriculum, and precise names are assigned to them. Such matters as contrary to fact conditions, indirect quotations, clauses of purpose and of result, accusatives of time and measure, expressions of separation, reference, etc., thus become familiar to the student, long before he meets them in the more difficult garb of a national tongue, whose exceptions seem to outnumber its rules, and whose idioms prove more puzzling than its exceptions, unless approached by the smooth and gradual ascent of the International Language, Esperanto.

The second part of the twofold need that this book addresses is the necessity of presenting Esperanto not as something separate, but in a way that makes it most useful as a gateway to national languages. As a stepping-stone to both ancient and modern languages, Esperanto can provide invaluable help and ease the many challenges faced by both students and teachers. With Esperanto, the effort needed to learn these languages can be reduced, while the enjoyment and depth of learning can increase. For this reason, the grammatical structures of Esperanto are explained here as consistently as possible, in line with how national languages are used, particularly those found in school curricula, and clear terms are assigned to them. Topics such as contrary to fact conditions, indirect quotations, clauses of purpose and of result, accusatives of time and measure, expressions of separation, reference, and so forth, thus become familiar to the student long before they encounter them in the more complex form of a national language, which often has more exceptions than rules and whose idioms can be more confusing than the exceptions themselves, unless approached through the smooth and gradual progression offered by the International Language, Esperanto.

Ivy Kellerman.

Ivy Kellerman.

Washington, D.C.
August 3, 1910.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
LESSON  
I. Alphabet.—Vowels.—Consonants.—Names of the Letters.—Diphthongs.—Combinations of Consonants.—Syllables.—Accent.
II. Nouns.—The Article.—Adjectives.—Attributive Adjectives.—Present Tense of the Verb
III. The Plural Number.—Predicate Adjective and Noun
IV. Transitive Verbs.—The Accusative Case.—The Conjunction Kaj.—The Negative Ne.
V. The Complementary Infinitive.—Interrogation.—The Conjunction Nek.
VI. Personal Pronouns.—Agreement with Pronouns.—Conjugation of the Verb.
VII. The Past Tense.—Prepositions.—Accusative Case of Personal Pronouns.
VIII. Reflexive Pronouns.—Reflexive Verbs.
IX. Limitation of the Third Personal Pronoun.—Possessive Adjectives.—Pronominal Use of Possessive Adjectives.—La Kato kaj la Pasero.
X. The Accusative of Direction.—The Article for the Possessive Adjective.—Apposition.—La Arabo kaj la Kamelo.
XI. Possessive Case of Nouns.—Impersonal Verbs.—Verbs Preceding their Subjects.—Coordinating Conjunctions.—La Arabo en la Dezerto.
XII. Indirect Statements.—The Indefinite Personal Pronoun Oni.—The Future Tense.—La Ventoflago.
XIII. The Demonstrative Pronoun Tiu.—Tenses in Indirect Quotations.—Formation of Feminine Nouns.—En la Parko.
XIV. The Demonstrative Pronoun Ĉi tiu.—Possessive Form of the Demonstrative Pronoun.—The Suffix -Il-.—The Expression of Means or Instrumentality.—La Manĝo.
XV. The Demonstrative Adjective.—Adverbs Defined and Classified.—Formation of Opposites.—La Ruza Juna Viro.
XVI. The Demonstrative Adverb of Place.—Accompaniment.—The Adverb For.—The Meaning of Povi.—Malamikoj en la Dezerto.
XVII. The Demonstrative Temporal Adverb.—Comparison of Adjectives.—Manner and Characteristic.—Diri, Paroli and Rakonti.—Frederiko Granda kaj la Juna Servisto.
XVIII. The Demonstrative Adverb of Motive or Reason.—Derivation of Adverbs.—Comparison of Words Expressing Quantity.—Comparisons Containing Ol.—Causal Clauses.—Pri la Sezonoj.
XIX. Ju and Des in Comparisons.—The Preposition Inter.—The Preposition Pro.—Prepositions with Adverbs and Other Prepositions.—La Aŭtuno kaj la Vintro.
XX. The Demonstrative Adverb of Manner and Degree.—Prepositions Expressing Time-Relations.—En Septembro.
XXI. The Accusative of Time.—Adverbs and the Accusative of Time.—The Preposition Por.—La Sezonoj kaj la Mondo.
XXII. Clauses Expressing Duration of Time.—Clauses Expressing Anticipation.—The Infinitive with Anstataŭ, Por, Antaŭ ol.—The Expression of a Part of the Whole.—Diogeno kaj Aleksandro Granda.
XXIII. Adverbs Expressing a Part of the Whole.—The Demonstrative Adverb of Quantity.—Result Clauses.—En la Butiko.
XXIV. The Interrogative Pronoun.—The Present Active Participle.—Compound Tenses.—The Progressive Present Tense.—The Suffix -Ej-.—En Nia Domo.
XXV. The Interrogative Adjective.—The Imperfect Tense.—Salutations and Exclamations.—Word Formation.—Koni and Scii.—La Nepo Vizitas la Avinon.
XXVI. The Interrogative Adverb of Place.—The Past Active Participle.—Adverb Derivation from Prepositions.—Adverbs Expressing Direction of Motion.—The Suffix -Eg-.—La Pluvego.
XXVII. The Interrogative Temporal Adverb.—The Perfect Tense.—The Preposition Ĉe.—The Suffix -Ar-.—Tempo and Fojo.—The Orthography of Proper Names.—Roberto Bruce kaj la Araneo.
XXVIII. The Interrogative Adverb of Motive or Reason.— The Infinitive as Subject.—Present Action with Past Inception.—The Suffix -Ul-.—Loĝi and Vivi.—Pri la Avo kaj la Avino.
XXIX. The Interrogative Adverb of Manner and Degree.—The Pluperfect Tense.—Cardinal Numbers.—The Accusative of Measure.—Nia Familio.
XXX. The Interrogative Adverb of Quantity.—Modifiers of Impersonally Used Verbs.—Formation of Cardinal Numerals.—The Suffix -An-.—Leciono Pri Aritmetiko.
XXXI. The Relative Pronoun.—The Future Perfect Tense.—Ordinal Numerals.—Alfredo Granda kaj la Libro.
XXXII. Kia as a Relative Adjective.—Kie as a Relative Adverb.—The Future Active Participle.—The Periphrastic Future Tenses.—The Suffix -Ind-.—Alfredo Granda kaj la Kukoj.
XXXIII. Kiam as a Relative Adverb.—Kiel as a Relative Adverb.—Numeral Nouns and Adverbs.—Word Derivation from Prepositions.—La Invito.
XXXIV. Prepositions as Prefixes.—The Suffix -Ebl-.—Expression of the Highest Degree Possible.—Titles and Terms of Address.—Ĉe la Festo.
XXXV. Kiom as a Relative Adverb.—The Present Passive Participle.—Fractions.—Descriptive Compounds.—La Ĥinoj.
XXXVI. The Present Passive Tense.—The Use of De to Express Agency.—The General Meaning of De.—Word Derivation from Primary Adverbs.—The Suffix -Ist-.—Antikva Respubliko.
XXXVII. The Distributive Pronoun.—The Preposition Po.—Dependent Compounds.—La Ĉapelo sur la Stango.
XXXVIII. The Distributive Adjective.—The Imperfect Passive Tense.—Compound Tenses of Impersonal Verbs.—Reciprocal Expressions.—The Suffix -Uj-.—Vilhelmo Tell kaj la Pomo.
XXXIX. The Distributive Adverb of Place.—The Future Passive Tense.—Possessive Compounds.—The Time of Day.—The Suffix -Obl-.—En la Stacidomo.
XL. The Distributive Temporal Adverb.—The Distributive Adverb Ĉial.—The Past Passive Participle.—The Perfect Passive Tense.—The Preposition Laŭ.—The Suffix -Em-.—La Perdita Infano.
XLI. The Distributive Adverb Ĉiel.—The Distributive Adverb Ĉiom.—The Pluperfect Passive Tense.—The Future Perfect Passive Tense.—The Expression of Material.—The Suffix -Et-.—La Donaco.
XLII. The Future Passive Participle.—The Passive Periphrastic Future Tenses.—The Generic Article.—The Suffix -Ec-.—Sur la Vaporŝipo.
XLIII. The Indefinite Pronoun.—Participial Nouns.—The Prefix Ek-.—The Suffix -Id-.—La Nesto sur la Tendo.
XLIV. The Indefinite Adjective.—The Indefinite Adverb of Place.—Predicate Nominatives.—La Ĉevalo kaj la Sonorilo.
XLV. The Indefinite Temporal Adverb.—The Indefinite Adverb Ial.—Causative Verbs.—Emphasis by Means of Ja.—Ĉe la Malnova Ponto.
XLVI. The Indefinite Adverb Iel.—The Indefinite Adverb Iom.—The Suffix -Ad-.—The Use of Mem.—Arĥimedo kaj la Kronoj.
XLVII. The Negative Pronoun.—The Adverbial Participle.—The Prefix Re-.—La Filozofo Arĥimedo.
XLVIII. The Negative Adjective.—The Negative Adverb of Place.—The Negative Temporal Adverb.—The Suffix -Aĵ-.—The Adverb Jen.—Du Artkonkursoj.
XLIX. The Negative Adverbs Nenial, Neniel, Neniom.—The Suffix -Iĝ-.—La Krepusko.
L. The Pronouns ending in -O.—Correlative Words.—The Use of Ajn.—The Suffix -Ing-.—La Gordia Ligaĵo.
LI. The Pronoun Ambaŭ.—Formations with -Ig- and -Iĝ-.—Factual Conditions.—La Monaĥoj kaj la Azeno.
LII. The Conditional Mood.—Compound Tenses of the Conditional Mood.—Less Vivid Conditions.—Independent Use of the Conditional Mood.—The Prefix Dis-.—Pri la Gravitado.
LIII. Conditions Contrary to Fact.—The Verb Devi.—The Preposition Sen.—La Filozofo Sokrato.
LIV. Summary of Conditions.—Clauses of Imaginative Comparison.—The Use of Al to Express Reference.—The Suffix -Estr-.—La Ostracismo de Aristejdo.
LV. The Imperative Mood.—Resolve and Exhortation.—Commands and Prohibitions.—Less Peremptory Uses of the Imperative.—The Use of Moŝto.—La Glavo de Damoklo.
LVI. The Imperative in Subordinate Clauses.—The Preposition Je.—The Suffix -Op-.—La Marŝado de la Dekmil Grekoj.
LVII. Clauses Expressing Purpose.—Further Uses of the Accusative.—Synopsis of the Conjugation of the Verb.—The Suffix -Um-.—La Reirado de la Dekmilo.
LVIII. Permission and Possibility.—The Prefix Ge-.—The Suffix -Aĉ-.—Interjections.—Aleksandro Granda.
LIX. The Position of Unemphatic Pronouns.—Some Intransitive Verbs.—The Suffix -Er-.—The Prefixes Bo- and Duon-.—Correspondence.—Kelkaj Leteroj.
LX. Some Transitive Verbs.—Elision.—The Prefix Eks-.—The Prefix Pra-.—The Suffixes -Ĉj- and -Nj-.—Weights and Measures.—The International Money System.—Abbreviations.—Pri La Kamero.
 ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.
 ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.
 INDEX.

A Comprehensive Grammar of
ESPERANTO.

LESSON I.
ALPHABET.

1. The Esperanto alphabet contains the following letters: a, b, c, ĉ, d, e, f, g, ĝ, h, ĥ, i, j, ĵ, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, ŝ, t, u, ŭ, v, z.

1. The Esperanto alphabet includes the following letters: a, b, c, ĉ, d, e, f, g, ĝ, h, ĥ, i, j, ĵ, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, ŝ, t, u, ŭ, v, z.

VOWELS.

2. The vowels of the alphabet are pronounced as follows:

2. The vowels of the alphabet are pronounced like this:

a as in far.

a as in far.

e as in fiancé, like a in fate.

e as in fiancé, like a in fate.

This "long a" sound in English frequently ends with a vanish,—a brief terminal sound of ĭ, which makes the vowel slightly diphthongal, as in day, aye. Such a vanish must not be given to any of the Esperanto vowels.

This "long a" sound in English often ends with a quick fade—a short terminal sound of ĭ, which makes the vowel slightly diphthongal, as in day, aye. This fade should not be applied to any of the Esperanto vowels.

i as in machine.

i as in bot.

o as in toll, for.

o as in toll, for.

u as in rude, rural.

u as in rude, rural.

CONSONANTS.

3. The consonants b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, t, v, z, are pronounced as in English, and the remaining eleven as follows:

3. The consonants b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, t, v, z are pronounced like they are in English, and the other eleven are pronounced as follows:

c like ts in hats, tsetse.

c like ts in hats, tsetse.

ĉ like ch in chin, much.

ĉ sounds like ch in chin, much.

g like g in go, big.

g like g in go, big.

ĝ like g in gem, j in jar.

ĝ like g in gem, j in jar.

ĥ is produced by expelling the breath forcibly, with the throat only partially open.

ĥ is made by forcefully expelling breath while keeping the throat only partially open.

As in pronouncing German and Scotch ch, Spanish j, Irish gh, Russian x, Classical Greek χ etc. There are only a few words containing this consonant.

As in pronouncing German and Scottish ch, Spanish j, Irish gh, Russian x, Classical Greek χ, etc. There are only a few words that include this consonant.

j like y in yes, beyond.

j like y in yes, beyond.

ĵ like z in azure, s in visual.

ĵ like z in azure, s in visual.

r is slightly trilled or rolled.

r is slightly rolled.

s like s in see, basis.

s like s in see, basis.

ŝ like sh in shine, rash, ch in machine.

ŝ like sh in shine, rash, ch in machine.

ŭ like w or consonantal u. See Diphthongs, 5.

ŭ like w or consonantal u. See Diphthongs, 5.

NAMES OF THE LETTERS.

4. The vowels are named by their sounds, as given in 2. The names of the consonants are bo, co, ĉo, do, fo, go, ĝo, ho, ĥo, jo, ĵo, ko, lo, mo, no, po, ro, so, ŝo, to, ŭo, vo, zo. These are used in speaking of the letters, in pronouncing them in abbreviations, as ko to po for k. t. p. (= etc.), and in spelling words, as bo, i, ro, do, o, birdo.

4. The vowels are named by their sounds, as mentioned in 2. The names of the consonants are bo, co, ĉo, do, fo, go, ĝo, ho, ĥo, jo, ĵo, ko, lo, mo, no, po, ro, so, ŝo, to, ŭo, vo, zo. These are used when talking about the letters, pronouncing them in abbreviations, like ko to po for k. t. p. (= etc.), and in spelling words, such as bo, i, ro, do, o, birdo.

DIPHTHONGS.

5. Diphthongs are combinations of two vowels uttered as a single sound, by one breath-impulse. The diphthongs in Esperanto contain an i or u sound as the second element, but in order to avoid confusion with combinations of vowels not forming diphthongs (as in naiva, like English naïve, etc.), they are written with j and ŭ instead. Their pronunciation is as follows:

5. Diphthongs are pairs of vowels pronounced as a single sound, in one breath. The diphthongs in Esperanto include an i or u sound as the second element, but to prevent confusion with vowel combinations that don’t form diphthongs (like naiva, similar to English naïve, etc.), they are written with j and ŭ instead. Their pronunciation is as follows:

aj like ai in aisle.

aj like ai in isle.

ej like ei in vein, ey in they.

ej like ei in vein, ey in they.

oj like oi in coin, oy in boy.

oj like oi in coin, oy in boy.

uj like ui in ruin, u(e)y in gluey.

uj like ui in ruin, u(e)y in gluey.

like ayw in wayward, or like é(h)oo pronounced together.

like ayw in wayward, or like é(h)oo said together.

like ou in out, ow in owl.

aŭ like ou in out, ow in owl.

COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS.

6. Each consonant, in a combination of two or more consonants, is pronounced with its full value, whether within a word or at its beginning. There are no silent letters.

6. Every consonant, in a combination of two or more consonants, is pronounced with its full value, whether in the middle of a word or at the beginning. There are no silent letters.

a. Thus, both consonants are clearly sounded in the groups kn, kv, gv, sv, in such words as knabo, kvin, gvidi, sviso.

a. So, both consonants are clearly pronounced in the groups kn, kv, gv, sv, in words like knabo, kvin, gvidi, sviso.

b. The combination kz, as in ekzisti, ekzameno, must not be modified to the gs or ks represented by x in exist, execute.

b. The combination kz, as in ekzisti, ekzameno, must not be changed to the gs or ks shown by x in exist, execute.

c. The combination sc, as in escepte, scias, is equivalent to the combination sts in last said, first song, pronounced together rapidly. The s in a word beginning with sc may be sounded with the end of the preceding word, if that word ends in a vowel, as mis-cias for mi scias.

c. The combination sc, like in escepte and scias, is the same as the combination sts in lastsaid and firstsong, pronounced quickly together. The s in a word that starts with sc can be connected to the end of the previous word if that word ends with a vowel, like mis-cias for mi scias.

d. The n and g are pronounced separately in the combination ng, in such words as lingvo, angulo, producing the sound of ng heard in linger, not that in singer.

d. The n and g are pronounced separately in the combination ng, in such words as lingvo, angulo, producing the sound of ng heard in linger, not that in singer.

e. Each of two similar letters is clearly sounded, as interrilato, ellasi, like inter-relate, well-laid.

e. Each of the two similar letters is clearly pronounced, as interrilato, ellasi, like inter-relate, well-laid.

SYLLABLES.

7. Each word contains as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. The division of syllables within a word is as follows:

7. Each word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. The breakdown of syllables in a word is as follows:

a. A single consonant goes with the following vowel, as pa-no, be-la, a-e-ro.

a. A single consonant pairs with the following vowel, like pa-no, be-la, a-e-ro.

b. A consonant followed by l or r (which are liquids) goes with the l or r, as in ta-blo, a-kra, a-gra-bla.

b. A consonant that comes before l or r (which are liquids) combines with the l or r, like in ta-blo, a-kra, a-gra-bla.

c. Otherwise, the syllable division is made before the last consonant of the group, as sus-pek-ti, sank-ta, deks-tra.

c. Otherwise, the syllable division is done before the last consonant in the group, as in sus-pek-ti, sank-ta, deks-tra.

d. Prefixes are separated from the words to which they are attached, as dis-meti, mal-akra, and compound words are divided into their component parts, as ĉef-urbo, sun-ombrelo.

d. Prefixes are separated from the words they’re attached to, like dis-meti, mal-akra, and compound words are divided into their parts, like ĉef-urbo, sun-ombrelo.

ACCENT.

8. Words of more than one syllable are accented upon the syllable before the last, as tá-blo, a-grá-bla, sus-pék-ti.

8. Words with more than one syllable are stressed on the syllable before the last, like ta-blo, a-gra-bla, sus-pek-ti.

WORDS FOR PRACTICE.

9. (To be pronounced aloud, and correctly accented) Afero, trairi, najbaro, aero, hodiaŭ, pacienco, centono, ĉielo, eĉ, samideano, treege, obei, obeu, Eŭropo, gvidi, ĝojo, ĉiujn, justa, ĝuste, juĝi, ĵaŭdo, lingvo, knabo, larĝa, pagi, kvieteco, ekzemplo, ellerni, fojo, krajono, forrajdi, kuirejo, ĉevalejo, sankteco, scio, nescio, edzo, meze, duobla, ŝipo, ŝarĝi, poŝo, svingi, sklavo, palaj, ŝafaĵo, atmosfero, monaĥo, geometrio, laŭdi, vasta, eksplodi, senĉesa, sensencaĵo, malluma, arbaranoj, manĝo, freŝa, aŭskulti, daŭri.

9. (To be pronounced aloud, and correctly accented) Afero, trairi, najbaro, aero, today, patience, cent, sky, even, comrade, really, obey, obey, Europe, lead, joy, all, fair, correctly, judge, Thursday, language, boy, wide, pay, calm, example, learn, time, pencil, wander off, kitchen, stable, sanctity, knowledge, ignorance, husband, middle, double, ship, load, pocket, swing, slave, pale, wool, atmosphere, monk, geometry, praise, vast, explode, endless, nonsense, dark, forest dwellers, meal, fresh, listen, continue.

LESSON II.
NOUNS.

10. Words which are the names of persons or things are called nouns. The ending, or final letter, of nouns in Esperanto is o:

10. Words that name people or things are called nouns. The ending, or final letter, of nouns in Esperanto is o:

knabo, boy.
ĉevalo, horse.
pomo, apple.
tablo, table.
THE ARTICLE.

11. The definite article is la, the, as la knabo, the boy, la ĉevalo, the horse, la tablo, the table, la pomo, the apple. In English there is an indefinite article "a, an" for the singular, but none for the plural. Esperanto has no indefinite article for either singular or plural. Therefore knabo may mean boy, or a boy, pomo may mean apple or an apple.

11. The definite article is la, the, as in la knabo, the boy, la ĉevalo, the horse, la tablo, the table, la pomo, the apple. In English, there's an indefinite article "a, an" for singular nouns, but none for plural ones. Esperanto doesn't have an indefinite article for either singular or plural. So knabo can mean boy or a boy, and pomo can mean apple or an apple.

ADJECTIVES

12. A word used with a noun (expressed or understood) to express a quality or characteristic is called an adjective. The ending of adjectives in Esperanto is a:

12. A word that is used with a noun (whether it's stated or implied) to indicate a quality or characteristic is called an adjective. Adjectives in Esperanto end with a:

bela, beautiful.
flava, yellow.
granda, large.
forta, strong.
ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES.

13. An adjective is said to modify a noun whose quality it expresses. When directly preceding or following its noun, it is called an attributive adjective:

13. An adjective is said to change or add to the meaning of a noun by describing its quality. When it comes directly before or after its noun, it's called an attributive adjective:

la granda ĉevalo, the large horse.
bela birdo, a beautiful bird.
floro flava, a yellow flower.
forta knabo, a strong boy.

the big horse, a large horse.
pretty bird, a beautiful bird.
yellow flower, a yellow flower.
strong boy, a strong boy.

PRESENT TENSE OF THE VERB.

14. Words which express action or condition are called verbs. When representing an act or condition as a fact, and dealing with the present time, they are said to be in the present tense. The ending of all Esperanto verbs in the present tense is -as:

14. Words that express action or a state are called verbs. When they describe an action or condition as a fact in the present time, they are referred to as being in the present tense. All Esperanto verbs in the present tense end with -as:

kuras, runs, is running.
flugas, flies, is flying.
brilas, shines, is shining.
dormas, sleeps, is sleeping.

15. The person or thing whose action or condition the verb expresses is called the subject of the verb:

15. The person or thing that the verb refers to in terms of action or state is called the subject of the verb:

La suno brilas, the sun shines (is shining), subject: suno.
Knabo kuras, a boy runs (is running), subject: knabo.

The sun shines, the sun shines (is shining), subject: sun.
A boy runs, a boy runs (is running), subject: boy.

Vocabulary.
(To be memorized in this and in all following lessons.)
bela, beautiful.
birdo, bird.
blanka, white.
bona, good.
brilas, shines, is shining.
ĉevalo, horse.
dormas, sleeps, is sleeping.
flava, yellow.
floro, flower.
flugas, flies, is flying.
forta, strong,
granda, large.
kaj, and.
kantas, sings, is singing.
knabo, boy.
kuras, runs, is running.
la, the.
luno, moon.
marŝas, walks, is walking.
pomo, apple.
suno, sun.
tablo, table.
violo, violet.
viro, man.
READING LESSON.

1. Bona viro. 2. La granda tablo. 3. Blanka floro. 4. Flava birdo. 5. La bela birdo kantas. 6. Forta knabo kuras. 7. La bona viro marŝas. 8. La bela ĉevalo kuras. 9. La suno brilas. 10. Birdo flugas kaj knabo kuras. 11. Ĉevalo blanka marŝas. 12. La bela luno brilas. 13. La knabo kantas kaj la viro dormas. 14. Bela granda pomo. 15. La bona knabo kantas. 16. La granda ĉevalo dormas. 17. La suno brilas kaj la luno brilas. 18. Granda forta tablo. 19. Violo flava. 20. La bona flava pomo.

1. Good man. 2. The big table. 3. White flower. 4. Yellow bird. 5. The beautiful bird sings. 6. Strong boy runs. 7. The good man walks. 8. The beautiful horse runs. 9. The sun shines. 10. Bird flies and boy runs. 11. White horse walks. 12. The beautiful moon shines. 13. The boy sings and the man sleeps. 14. Beautiful big apple. 15. The good boy sings. 16. The big horse sleeps. 17. The sun shines and the moon shines. 18. Big strong table. 19. Yellow violet. 20. The good yellow apple.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. A beautiful flower. 2. A good large table. 3. A yellow violet and a white violet. 4. The moon is-shining (shines). 5. The good boy is-walking (walks). 6. The beautiful yellow bird is-flying (flies). 7. The strong man is-sleeping (sleeps). 8. The white bird is-singing (sings). 9. A strong horse runs, and a man walks. 10. The sun shines, and the boy is-singing (sings). 11. The large yellow apple. 12. An apple large and good.

1. A beautiful flower. 2. A big table. 3. A yellow violet and a white violet. 4. The moon is shining. 5. The good boy is walking. 6. The beautiful yellow bird is flying. 7. The strong man is sleeping. 8. The white bird is singing. 9. A strong horse runs, and a man walks. 10. The sun shines, and the boy is singing. 11. The large yellow apple. 12. A big and good apple.

LESSON III.
THE PLURAL NUMBER.

16. The plural number of nouns, that is, the form which indicates more than one person or thing, is made by adding -j to the noun, as viroj, men, from viro, man; tabloj, tables, from tablo, table.

16. The plural form of nouns, which indicates more than one person or thing, is created by adding -j to the noun, for example, viroj, men, from viro, man; tabloj, tables, from tablo, table.

-oj is pronounced like oy in boy. See 5.

-oj is pronounced like oy in boy. See 5.

17. An adjective modifying a plural noun agrees with it in number, being given the plural form by the addition of the ending -j. An adjective modifying two or more nouns used together is of course given the plural form:

17. An adjective that describes a plural noun matches it in number, taking the plural form by adding the ending -j. An adjective that modifies two or more nouns used together is naturally given the plural form:

bonaj viroj, good men.
grandaj ĉevaloj, large horses.
belaj birdo kaj floro (bela birdo kaj bela floro), beautiful bird and (beautiful) flower.

good men, good men.
large horses, large horses.
beautiful bird and (beautiful) flower, beautiful bird and (beautiful) flower.

-aj is pronounced like ai in aisle. See 5.

-aj is pronounced like ai in aisle. See 5.

18. The article is invariable, that is, does not change in form when used with plural nouns, as la viro, the man, la viroj, the men. The verb is also invariable in form:

18. The article is invariable, meaning it doesn't change its form when used with plural nouns, as in la viro, the man, la viroj, the men. The verb is also invariable in form:

La viroj marŝas, the men walk, the men are walking.
La suno kaj la luno brilas, the sun and the moon are shining.
La viro estas, the man is.
La viroj estas, the men are.

The men walk, the men walk, the men are walking.
The sun and the moon shine, the sun and the moon are shining.
The man is, the man is.
The men are, the men are.

PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN.

19. When the adjective is a part of that which is told or predicated of the subject of the verb, as when used with the verbs "to be," "to seem," etc., it is called a predicate adjective:

19. When the adjective is part of what is said about the subject of the verb, like when used with the verbs "to be," "to seem," etc., it is called a predicate adjective:

La birdo estas bela, the bird is beautiful.
La knabo ŝajnas bona, the boy seems good.
La viroj estas fortaj, the men are strong.

The bird is beautiful, la birdo estas bela.
The boy seems good, la knabo ŝajnas bona.
The men are strong, la viroj estas fortaj.

20. A noun may also be used as part of the predicate, and is then called a predicate noun:

20. A noun can also be used as part of the predicate, and is then called a predicate noun:

Violoj estas floroj, violets are flowers.
La kolombo estas birdo, the dove is a bird.

Violets are flowers, violets are flowers.
The dove is a bird, the dove is a bird.

21. Predicate nouns and adjectives agree in number with the word or words with which they are in predicate relation:

21. Predicate nouns and adjectives agree in number with the word or words they are related to in the predicate:

Rozoj estas belaj, roses are beautiful.
La knabo kaj la viro ŝajnas fortaj, the boy and the man seem strong.

Roses are beautiful.
The boy and the man seem strong.

Vocabulary.
alta, high, tall.
arbo, tree.
ĉambro, room.
domo, house.
en, in.
estas, is, are.
folio, leaf.
freŝa, fresh.
ĝardeno, garden.
kampo, field.
kolombo, dove.
kuŝas, lies, is lying, lie.
longa, long.
rozo, rose.
ruĝa, red.
seĝo, chair.
sidas, sits, sit, is sitting.
sur, on.
ŝajnas, seems, seem.
verda, green.
READING LESSON.

1. La alta viro estas en la ĝardeno. 2. Blanka ĉevalo estas en la kampo. 3. Belaj birdoj sidas sur la verda arbo. 4. La bonaj knaboj estas en la domo. 5. La ĉambroj en la bela domo estas grandaj. 6. Freŝaj floroj kuŝas sur la tablo. 7. La violoj en la kampo estas belaj. 8. La luno kaj la suno ŝajnas grandaj. 9. La kolomboj estas belaj birdoj. 10. La knaboj ŝajnas fortaj. 11. Ruĝaj pomoj estas sur la tablo en la ĉambro. 12. La fortaj viroj sidas sur seĝoj en la longa ĉambro. 13. La arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. 14. La kolomboj sur la arboj kantas. 15. Fortaj ĉevaloj marŝas kaj kuras en la verdaj kampoj. 16. La knaboj dormas en la granda domo. 17. Ruĝaj, flavaj, kaj verdaj folioj estas en la ĝardeno. 18. Longa tablo estas en la domo. 19. Belaj birdoj flugas kaj kantas en la kampo. 20. Freŝaj rozoj ŝajnas belaj. 21. La folioj estas verdaj kaj ruĝaj.

1. The tall man is in the garden. 2. A white horse is in the field. 3. Beautiful birds are sitting on the green tree. 4. The good boys are in the house. 5. The rooms in the beautiful house are big. 6. Fresh flowers are lying on the table. 7. The violets in the field are beautiful. 8. The moon and the sun seem big. 9. The doves are beautiful birds. 10. The boys seem strong. 11. Red apples are on the table in the room. 12. Strong men are sitting on chairs in the long room. 13. The trees are tall and green. 14. The doves in the trees are singing. 15. Strong horses are walking and running in the green fields. 16. The boys are sleeping in the big house. 17. Red, yellow, and green leaves are in the garden. 18. A long table is in the house. 19. Beautiful birds are flying and singing in the field. 20. Fresh roses seem beautiful. 21. The leaves are green and red.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The trees in the garden are tall and green. 2. The rooms in the house are long. 3. The flowers on the table are red, yellow and white. 4. The leaves are long and green. 5. The men are-sitting (sit) on chairs in the garden. 6. In the garden are yellow roses. 7. The birds in the field are doves. 8. The boys in the room in the house seem tall. 9. Fresh violets are beautiful flowers. 10. The horses in the green fields seem strong. 11. Doves are-singing (sing) in the garden. 12. The men in the large house sleep. 13. The house is long and high, and the rooms in the house are large. 14. Red and yellow apples lie on the big table. 15. Green leaves are on the trees in the large garden.

1. The trees in the garden are tall and green. 2. The rooms in the house are long. 3. The flowers on the table are red, yellow, and white. 4. The leaves are long and green. 5. The men are sitting on chairs in the garden. 6. There are yellow roses in the garden. 7. The birds in the field are doves. 8. The boys in the room in the house seem tall. 9. Fresh violets are beautiful flowers. 10. The horses in the green fields seem strong. 11. Doves are singing in the garden. 12. The men in the large house are sleeping. 13. The house is long and high, and the rooms in the house are spacious. 14. Red and yellow apples are on the big table. 15. Green leaves are on the trees in the large garden.

LESSON IV.
TRANSITIVE VERBS.

22. The verbs so far given have been intransitive verbs, expressing a state or an action limited to the subject, and not immediately affecting any other person or thing, as la knabo kuras, the boy runs. On the other hand a transitive verb expresses an act of the subject upon some person or thing; as, la knabo trovas — —, the boy finds — —.

22. The verbs we've discussed so far are intransitive verbs, which indicate a state or an action that only involves the subject and doesn't directly affect anyone or anything else, like la knabo kuras, the boy runs. In contrast, a transitive verb describes an action performed by the subject on a person or thing; for example, la knabo trovas — —, the boy finds — —.

THE ACCUSATIVE CASE.

23. The person or thing acted upon is called the direct object of a transitive verb, and is given the ending -n. This is called the accusative ending; and the word to which it is attached is said to be in the accusative case:

23. The person or thing that is affected by the action is called the direct object of a transitive verb and is given the ending -n. This is known as the accusative ending, and the word it's attached to is said to be in the accusative case:

La viro havas seĝon, the man has a chair.
La knabo trovas florojn, the boy finds flowers.

The man has a chair, the man has a chair.
The boy finds flowers, the boy finds flowers.

The ending -n follows the ending -j, if the word to be put in the accusative case is in the plural number.

The ending -n comes after the ending -j if the word that needs to be changed to the accusative case is plural.

24. An attributive adjective modifying a noun in the accusative case is made to agree in case, by addition of the same accusative ending -n. This prevents any doubt as to which of two or more nouns in a sentence is modified by the adjective, and permits of variation in the order of the words:

24. An attributive adjective that modifies a noun in the accusative case must agree in case by adding the same accusative ending -n. This clarifies which of two or more nouns in a sentence is modified by the adjective and allows for variations in the order of the words:

La knabo trovas belan floron, the boy finds a beautiful flower.
Florojn belajn la viro havas, the man has beautiful flowers.
La viro havas grandan seĝon, the man has a large chair.
Ruĝan rozon la knabo havas, the boy has a red rose.

The boy finds a beautiful flower, the boy finds a beautiful flower.
The man has beautiful flowers, the man has beautiful flowers.
The man has a large chair, the man has a large chair.
The boy has a red rose, the boy has a red rose.

25. A predicate adjective or noun (19) is never in the accusative case, nor is the accusative ending ever attached to the article, which is invariable as stated in 18.

25. A predicate adjective or noun (19) is never in the accusative case, nor is the accusative ending ever added to the article, which remains unchanged as mentioned in 18.

THE CONJUNCTION KAJ.

26. In the expression both ... and ..., the conjunction kaj is used for both words, being merely repeated:

26. In the phrase both ... and ..., the conjunction kaj is used for both words, simply repeating it:

La viro kaj marŝas kaj kuras, the man both walks and runs.
La ĉevalo estas kaj granda kaj forta, the horse is both large and strong.
La knabo havas kaj rozojn kaj violojn, the boy has both roses and violets.
Kaj la knabo kaj la viro estas altaj, both the boy and the man are tall.

The man walks and runs, the man both walks and runs.
The horse is both large and strong, the horse is both large and strong.
The boy has both roses and violets, the boy has both roses and violets.
Both the boy and the man are tall, both the boy and the man are tall.

THE NEGATIVE NE.

27. The negative word meaning "not" when forming part of a sentence, and "no" when used as an answer to a question, is ne. When used as a sentence-negative, it usually immediately precedes the verb. For emphatic negation of some other word than the verb, ne may precede that word:

27. The negative word meaning "not" when it's part of a sentence, and "no" when used as a response to a question, is ne. When used to negate a sentence, it typically comes right before the verb. For strong negation of a word other than the verb, ne can come before that word:

Violoj ne estas ruĝaj, violets are not red.
La viroj ne sidas sur seĝoj, the men are-not-sitting on chairs.
La kolombo kantas, ne flugas, the dove is-singing, not flying.
La domo estas blanka, ne verda, the house is white, not green.

Violets are not red, violets are not red.
The men are not sitting on chairs, the men are not sitting on chairs.
The dove is singing, not flying, the dove is singing, not flying.
The house is white, not green, the house is white, not green.

Vocabulary.
apud, near, in the vicinity of.
benko, bench.
branĉo, branch.
diversa, various.
feliĉa, happy.
frukto, fruit.
havas, have, has.
herbo, grass.
ili, they.
kolektas, gather, collect.
koloro, color.
larĝa, wide, broad.
manĝas, eat, eats.
mola, soft.
nigra, black.
ne, not, no.
rompas, break, breaks.
sed, but.
trovas, find, finds.
vidas, see, sees.
READING LESSON.

1. La knaboj ne estas en la ĉambro en la blanka domo. 2. Ili estas en la granda ĝardeno. 3. La ĝardeno ŝajnas kaj longa kaj larĝa. 4. La feliĉaj knaboj vidas la belan ĝardenon. 5. Ili vidas florojn apud alta arbo. 6. La floroj havas diversajn kolorojn. 7. La knaboj kolektas kaj ruĝajn kaj flavajn florojn. 8. Sed ili ne trovas fruktojn en la ĝardeno. 9. Florojn blankajn ili ne vidas. 10. La alta arbo havas verdajn foliojn sur la branĉoj. 11. La knaboj rompas branĉon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. 12. Ili vidas florojn sur la branĉoj, sed la florojn ili ne kolektas. 13. La knaboj ne sidas sur benkoj en la ĝardeno, sed kuŝas sur la mola herbo. 14. La kolomboj sidas sur la arboj, kaj ili estas feliĉaj. 15. La knaboj vidas la belajn birdojn. 16. Fortaj nigraj ĉevaloj manĝas la herbon en la kampo. 17. La knaboj vidas la ĉevalojn, sed la ĉevaloj ne vidas la knabojn. 18. La ĉevaloj ne dormas, ili manĝas. 19. La freŝa herbo estas verda kaj mola. 20. Feliĉaj estas kaj la knaboj kaj la ĉevaloj. 21. La pomo estas bona frukto.

1. The boys are not in the room in the white house. 2. They are in the big garden. 3. The garden seems both long and wide. 4. The happy boys see the beautiful garden. 5. They see flowers by a tall tree. 6. The flowers come in various colors. 7. The boys collect both red and yellow flowers. 8. But they don’t find any fruit in the garden. 9. They don’t see any white flowers. 10. The tall tree has green leaves on its branches. 11. The boys break a branch and collect the fruit. 12. They see flowers on the branches, but they don’t collect the flowers. 13. The boys are not sitting on benches in the garden; instead, they are lying on the soft grass. 14. The doves sit in the trees, and they are happy. 15. The boys see the beautiful birds. 16. Strong black horses are eating the grass in the field. 17. The boys see the horses, but the horses do not see the boys. 18. The horses are not sleeping; they are eating. 19. The fresh grass is green and soft. 20. Both the boys and the horses are happy. 21. The apple is a good fruit.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Green leaves are on the trees. 2. The boys break branches and gather the apples. 3. They are near the tall tree in the garden. 4. They find leaves on the tree, but they do not see the fruit. 5. The house is long, broad and high. 6. The rooms in the house are both long and wide. 7. The men have strong black horses. 8. The horses eat the fresh green grass in the field. 9. The men sit on benches in the garden. 10. The boys do not sleep, but they lie on the soft grass. 11. They see both the birds and the flowers, and they seem happy. 12. The flowers have various colors, but the grass is green. 13. The doves are not sitting on the tree, they are flying near the trees. 14. Beautiful red roses are lying on the table in the house. 15. The large red apples are near the yellow roses.

1. Green leaves are on the trees. 2. The boys break branches and gather the apples. 3. They are near the tall tree in the garden. 4. They find leaves on the tree, but they don't see the fruit. 5. The house is long, wide, and tall. 6. The rooms in the house are both long and spacious. 7. The men have strong black horses. 8. The horses eat the fresh green grass in the field. 9. The men sit on benches in the garden. 10. The boys don't sleep, but they lie on the soft grass. 11. They see both the birds and the flowers, and they look happy. 12. The flowers come in various colors, but the grass is green. 13. The doves aren't sitting on the tree; they're flying near the trees. 14. Beautiful red roses are on the table in the house. 15. The large red apples are next to the yellow roses.

LESSON V.
THE COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE.

28. The infinitive is a form of the verb which expresses merely the general idea of the action or condition indicated, and has some of the characteristics of a noun. The ending of the infinitive is -i, as kuri, to run, esti, to be, havi, to have.

28. The infinitive is a verb form that expresses just the general idea of the action or condition mentioned and has some qualities of a noun. The ending of the infinitive is -i, as in kuri, to run, esti, to be, havi, to have.

29. An infinitive used to complete the meaning of another verb, serving as a direct object to a transitive verb, is called a complementary infinitive. If the complementary infinitive is from a transitive verb, it may itself have a direct object:

29. An infinitive that completes the meaning of another verb and acts as a direct object for a transitive verb is called a complementary infinitive. If the complementary infinitive comes from a transitive verb, it can also have its own direct object:

La knabo volas kuri, the boy wishes to run.
Birdoj ŝatas kanti, birds like to sing.
La knabo volas havi ĉevalon, the boy wishes to have a horse.
Ili volas trovi florojn, they wish to find flowers.

The boy wants to run, the boy wishes to run.
Birds like to sing, birds like to sing.
The boy wants to have a horse, the boy wishes to have a horse.
They want to find flowers, they wish to find flowers.

INTERROGATION.

30. An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question. Unless some directly interrogative word (as "who," "when," "why," etc.) is used, the sentence is rendered interrogative by use of the word ĉu. This interrogative particle is placed at the beginning of a sentence, the words of which are left in the same order as for a statement. Since there is no inversion of order, there is no necessity for a word like English "do" or "does," to introduce the verb:

30. An interrogative sentence is one that asks a question. Unless a specific interrogative word (like "who," "when," "why," etc.) is used, the sentence becomes interrogative by using the word ĉu. This interrogative particle is placed at the beginning of a sentence, while the words remain in the same order as they would in a statement. Since there’s no change in order, there’s no need for a word like the English "do" or "does" to introduce the verb:

Ĉu la knabo estas bona? Is the boy good?
Ĉu ili havas florojn? Have they flowers?
Ĉu la kolomboj kantas? Do the doves sing? (Are the doves singing?)

Is the boy good?
Do they have flowers?
Do the doves sing? (Are the doves singing?)

THE CONJUNCTION NEK.

31. In the expression neither ... nor ..., the conjunction nek is used for both words. Since an adjective modifier of two or more words connected by nek must necessarily modify them separately, the adjective remains in the singular number:

31. In the phrase neither ... nor ..., the conjunction nek is used for both words. Because an adjective modifying two or more words connected by nek must modify them separately, the adjective stays in the singular form:

Ili nek marŝas nek kuras, they neither walk nor run.
La viro havas nek domon nek ĝardenon, the man has neither a house nor a garden.
Nek la rozo nek la violo estas verda, neither the rose nor the violet is green.

They neither walk nor run.
The man has neither a house nor a garden.
Neither the rose nor the violet is green.

Vocabulary.
(Verbs will hereafter be quoted in the infinitive form.)
bruna, brown.
ĉerizo, cherry.
ĉu, (30).
dolĉa, sweet.
gusto, taste.
ĝi, it.
Gertrude, Gertrude.
knabino, girl.
matura, ripe.
Mario, Mary.
nek, neither, nor.
persiko, peach.
jes, yes.
preferi, to prefer.
ŝati, to like.
voli, to wish.
READING LESSON.

1. Ĉu persiko estas ruĝa? 2. Jes, ĝi estas kaj ruĝa kaj dolĉa. 3. Ĉu ĉerizoj estas brunaj? 4. Ne, ili estas nek brunaj nek nigraj, sed flavaj. 5. Ĉu la pomo estas frukto? Jes, ĝi estas bona frukto. 6. Ĉu la viro kaj la knabo havas pomojn? 7. Ne, ili havas nek pomojn nek persikojn. 8. Ĉu Mario havas la maturan frukton? 9. Mario kaj Gertrudo havas la frukton. 10. Ili estas en la domo, kaj manĝas la maturan frukton. 11. La persikoj havas dolĉan guston. 12. La knabinoj volas havi florojn, sed la knaboj preferas kolekti diversajn fruktojn. 13. Ili volas trovi maturajn ĉerizojn kaj flavajn persikojn. 14. La ĉerizoj havas belan ruĝan koloron. 15. La persikoj ŝajnas molaj kaj bonaj. 16. Mario rompas branĉon, kaj vidas ĉerizojn sur la branĉoj. 17. Gertrudo estas feliĉa, kaj volas havi la belan frukton. 18. Gertrudo estas alta, bela knabino. 19. Mario ŝatas ĉerizojn. 20. La knaboj kaj knabinoj sidas sur la verda herbo, kaj manĝas la ĉerizojn. 21. Ili ne volas manĝi pomojn, ili preferas la dolĉajn ĉerizojn. 22. La folioj apud la ĉerizoj estas nek larĝaj nek longaj.

1. Is the peach red? 2. Yes, it’s both red and sweet. 3. Are cherries brown? 4. No, they are neither brown nor black, but yellow. 5. Is the apple a fruit? Yes, it is a good fruit. 6. Do the man and the boy have apples? 7. No, they have neither apples nor peaches. 8. Does Mario have the ripe fruit? 9. Mario and Gertrude have the fruit. 10. They are in the house and eating the ripe fruit. 11. The peaches have a sweet taste. 12. The girls want flowers, but the boys prefer to collect various fruits. 13. They want to find ripe cherries and yellow peaches. 14. The cherries have a beautiful red color. 15. The peaches look soft and good. 16. Mario breaks a branch and sees cherries on the branches. 17. Gertrude is happy and wants to have the beautiful fruit. 18. Gertrude is a tall, pretty girl. 19. Mario likes cherries. 20. The boys and girls sit on the green grass and eat the cherries. 21. They don't want to eat apples; they prefer the sweet cherries. 22. The leaves near the cherries are neither wide nor long.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Have the girls beautiful flowers? 2. No, they have fresh fruit. 3. The boys do not wish to gather flowers. 4. They prefer to break the branches, and find the sweet cherries. 5. Gertrude wishes to eat apples, but Mary has neither apples nor peaches. 6. Do the girls like to sit in the house and eat fruit? 7. Yes, they like to sit in the house, but they prefer to walk in the field. 8. Are ripe peaches brown? 9. No, they are red and yellow. 10. Has the peach a sweet taste? 11. Do the girls see the beautiful black horses in the fields? 12. Yes, they see the horses, but the horses seem not to see the girls. 13. Mary sits on the soft green grass, and eats ripe fruit.

1. Do the girls have beautiful flowers? 2. No, they have fresh fruit. 3. The boys don’t want to pick flowers. 4. They prefer to break branches and find sweet cherries. 5. Gertrude wants to eat apples, but Mary has neither apples nor peaches. 6. Do the girls like to stay inside and eat fruit? 7. Yes, they like being inside, but they prefer walking in the field. 8. Are ripe peaches brown? 9. No, they are red and yellow. 10. Does the peach taste sweet? 11. Do the girls see the beautiful black horses in the fields? 12. Yes, they see the horses, but the horses don’t seem to notice the girls. 13. Mary sits on the soft green grass and eats ripe fruit.

LESSON VI.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

32. Words which stand in the place of nouns, as "you," "he," "who," "which," are called pronouns. Pronouns referring to the person speaking (I, we), the person addressed (you, thou), or the person or thing spoken of (he, she, it, they), are called personal pronouns. They are considered singular or plural, according to whether they refer to one or more persons. Since the meaning of such pronouns indicates the number, no plural ending is ever attached to them. The personal pronouns are:

32. Words that replace nouns, such as "you," "he," "who," and "which," are called pronouns. Pronouns that refer to the speaker (I, we), the person being spoken to (you, thou), or the person or thing being talked about (he, she, it, they), are known as personal pronouns. They are categorized as singular or plural based on whether they refer to one or multiple people. Since the meaning of these pronouns indicates the quantity, no plural ending is ever added to them. The personal pronouns are:

 Singular.Plural.
First person:mi, I (me).ni, we (us).
Second person:vi, you.vi, you.
Third person:li, he (him).
ŝi, she (her).
ĝi, it.
ili, they (them).

There is another pronoun ci, thou, for the second person singular, used in solemn style, as in the Bible, in poetry, and also for intimate or familiar address when desired, like German du, French tu, etc.

There is another pronoun ci, thou, for the second person singular, used in formal style, as in the Bible, in poetry, and also for close or familiar address when desired, like German du, French tu, etc.

AGREEMENT WITH PRONOUNS.

33. Nouns in predicate relation with pronouns, or adjectives modifying such pronouns, are made to agree with them in number:

33. Nouns that are in relation to pronouns or adjectives that modify those pronouns must agree with them in number:

Ni estas bonaj kaj feliĉaj, we are good and happy.
Rozoj estas floroj, ill ne estas fruktoj, roses are flowers, they are not fruits.
Gertrudo, vi estas bona, Gertrude, you are good.
Knabinoj, ĉu vi estas feliĉaj? Girls, are you happy?

You are good and happy, we are good and happy.
Roses are flowers, they are not fruits, roses are flowers, they are not fruits.
Gertrude, you are good, Gertrude, you are good.
Girls, are you happy? Girls, are you happy?

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.

34. Any pronoun may serve as the subject of a verb. The combination of the verb with each of the personal pronouns in succession for its subject, is called the conjugation of the verb. Following is the conjugation of the present tense of esti, and of vidi:

34. Any pronoun can be the subject of a verb. The pairing of the verb with each of the personal pronouns one after the other for its subject is called the conjugation of the verb. Below is the conjugation of the present tense of esti, and of vidi:

mi estas, I am.
vi estas, you are.
li (ŝi, ĝi) estas, he (she, it) is.
ni estas, we are.
vi estas, you (plural) are.
ili estas, they are.
mi vidas, I see.
vi vidas, you see.
li (ŝi, ĝi) vidas, he (she, it) sees.
ni vidas, we see.
vi vidas, you (plural) see.
ili vidas, they see.
Vocabulary.
al, to, toward.
Arturo, Arthur.
, or (aŭ.. aŭ.., either.. or..)
ĉar, because.
doni, to give.
fali, to fall.
fenestro, window.
hodiaŭ, today.
kudri, to sew.
Roberto, Robert.
skui, to shake.
stari, to stand.
sub, under, beneath.
virino, woman.
READING LESSON.

1. Knaboj, ĉu vi volas sidi en la domo, aŭ en la ĝardeno? 2. Ni preferas sidi hodiaŭ en la ĝardeno, sub la granda arbo. 3. Ĉu vi havas pomojn, aŭ ĉerizojn? 4. Ni havas nek pomojn nek ĉerizojn, sed ni havas dolĉajn persikojn. 5. Arturo donas al vi la maturajn persikojn, ĉar li ŝatas kolekti frukton. 6. Arturo, ĉu vi rompas la branĉojn? 7. Ne, sed mi skuas branĉon, kaj la persikoj falas. 8. Mi staras sub la arbo, kaj kolektas la dolĉan frukton. 9. La frukton mi donas al Mario kaj Gertrudo. 10. Mi volas doni persikon al Heleno, sed hodiaŭ ŝi estas en la domo. 11. Ŝi sidas apud la fenestro kaj kudras. 12. Ŝi preferas kudri, kaj volas nek marŝi nek sidi en la ĝardeno. 13. Kaj ŝi kaj la virino apud ŝi volas kudri hodiaŭ. 14. Ili estas feliĉaj, ĉar ili vidas la birdojn en la arbo apud la fenestro. 15. La birdoj estas kolomboj, kaj sidas sur la arbo. 16. Sub la arboj en la kampo staras ĉevaloj, kaj ili manĝas la verdan molan herbon. 17. Ni donas pomojn al ili, ĉar ili ŝatas pomojn. 18. Ni estas feliĉaj, ĉar ni havas belajn persikojn maturajn kaj bonajn. 19. Roberto, vi estas alta, sed vi, knabinoj, ne estas altaj.

1. Hey, do you want to sit inside the house or in the garden? 2. We prefer to sit outside in the garden today, under the big tree. 3. Do you have apples or cherries? 4. We have neither apples nor cherries, but we do have sweet peaches. 5. Arturo gives you the ripe peaches because he enjoys picking fruit. 6. Arturo, are you breaking the branches? 7. No, I'm shaking a branch, and the peaches fall. 8. I'm standing under the tree and collecting the sweet fruit. 9. I’m giving the fruit to Mario and Gertrude. 10. I want to give a peach to Helen, but she’s inside today. 11. She’s sitting by the window, sewing. 12. She prefers to sew and doesn’t want to walk or sit in the garden. 13. Both she and the woman next to her want to sew today. 14. They’re happy because they can see the birds in the tree by the window. 15. The birds are doves, and they’re sitting in the tree. 16. Under the trees in the field, there are horses eating the soft green grass. 17. We give them apples because they like apples. 18. We are happy because we have beautiful ripe and delicious peaches. 19. Roberto, you are tall, but you girls are not tall.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Does Arthur break the branch and gather the apples? 2. No, he shakes the branch, and the apples fall. 3. They are ripe and sweet. 4. Robert, do you wish to stand beneath the tree? 5. No, I do not wish to stand under it, but near it. 6. I wish to give both the peaches and the apples to the woman. 7. She is sitting in the house, near the window. 8. Mary is sitting in (on) a chair near her. 9. Both Mary and the woman are sewing. 10. They prefer to sew, and do not wish to walk in the garden to-day. 11. They are happy because they like to sew. 12. They do not wish to gather flowers, or walk, or see the birds. 13. They have neither apples nor peaches, but they do not wish to eat. 14. They give the fruit to the boys and girls.

1. Does Arthur break the branch and pick the apples? 2. No, he shakes the branch, and the apples fall. 3. They are ripe and sweet. 4. Robert, do you want to stand under the tree? 5. No, I don't want to stand under it, but close to it. 6. I want to give both the peaches and the apples to the woman. 7. She is sitting in the house, by the window. 8. Mary is sitting in a chair next to her. 9. Both Mary and the woman are sewing. 10. They prefer to sew and don't want to walk in the garden today. 11. They are happy because they enjoy sewing. 12. They don't want to pick flowers, walk, or see the birds. 13. They have neither apples nor peaches, but they don't want to eat. 14. They give the fruit to the boys and girls.

LESSON VII.
THE PAST TENSE.

35. The past tense of the verb expresses an action which took place in past time, or a condition which existed in past time. The ending of this tense is -is, as kuris, ran, flugis, flew, brilis, shone. The conjugation of esti and also of vidi in the past tense is as follows:

35. The past tense of the verb indicates an action that occurred in the past, or a condition that existed in the past. The ending of this tense is -is, as in kuris, ran, flugis, flew, brilis, shone. The conjugation of esti and also of vidi in the past tense is as follows:

mi estis, I was.
vi estis, you were.
li (ŝi, ĝi) estis, he (she, it) was.
ni estis, we were.
vi estis, you (plural) were.
ili estis, they were.
mi vidis, I saw.
vi vidis, you saw.
li (ŝi, ĝi) vidis, he (she, it) saw.
ni vidis, we saw.
vi vidis, you (plural) saw.
ili vidis, they saw.
PREPOSITIONS.

36. A preposition is a word like "in," "on," placed before a noun or pronoun to indicate some relation between this and another word. The preposition is said to govern the noun or pronoun, which is called its complement. In English, the complement of a preposition seems to be put in the accusative case if it is a pronoun, but to remain unchanged in form if it is a noun. In Esperanto the preposition does not affect the form of the word governed, which remains in the nominative case:

36. A preposition is a word like "in" or "on," placed before a noun or pronoun to show a relationship between it and another word. The preposition is said to govern the noun or pronoun, which is called its complement. In English, the complement of a preposition seems to change to the accusative case if it is a pronoun, but stays the same if it is a noun. In Esperanto, the preposition doesn’t change the form of the word it governs, which remains in the nominative case:

La arbo estas en la ĝardeno, the tree is in the garden.
Bonaj pomoj estas sur ĝi, good apples are on it.
Mi donis ĉerizojn al li, I gave cherries to him.
La knabo estas apud mi, the boy is near me.
Sub la arbo staris ĉevalo, under the tree stood a horse.

The tree is in the garden.
Good apples are on it.
I gave him cherries.
The boy is next to me.
Under the tree stood a horse.

ACCUSATIVE CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

37. For use as the object of a verb, any pronoun may be put in the accusative case by addition of the accusative ending -n (23):

37. To use a pronoun as the object of a verb, you can change any pronoun to the accusative case by adding the accusative ending -n (23):

La viro vidis vin kaj min, the man saw you and me.
Li vidis ilin kaj nin, he saw them and us.
Mi vidis nek lin nek ŝin, I saw neither him nor her.
Ni volas havi ĝin, we wish to have it.

The man saw you and me, the man saw you and me.
He saw them and us, he saw them and us.
I saw neither him nor her, I saw neither him nor her.
We wish to have it, we wish to have it.

Vocabulary.
agrabla, pleasant, agreeable.
bildo, picture.
blua, blue.
danki, to thank.
de, from.
diri, to say.
infano, child.
interesa, interesting.
luma, light (not dark).
muro, wall.
nun, now.
planko, floor.
pordo, door.
rigardi, to look (at).
tapiŝo, carpet.
tra, through.
READING LESSON.

1. Hodiaŭ la knaboj kaj knabinoj estas en la granda domo. 2. Ili staras apud la tablo, en agrabla luma ĉambro. 3. Ĝi havas altajn larĝajn fenestrojn. 4. Sub la tablo kaj seĝoj, mola tapiŝo kuŝas sur la planko. 5. La tapiŝo havas belajn kolorojn, ruĝan, bluan, flavan, kaj verdan. 6. Virino marŝis tra la pordo, kaj staris apud la tablo. 7. Ŝi havis interesajn bildojn, kaj donis ilin al la knaboj kaj la knabinoj. 8. Ŝi diris "Ĉu vi volas rigardi la bildojn?" 9. "Jes, ni dankas vin," diris la infanoj, kaj ŝi donis al ili la bildojn. 10. Granda bildo falis de la tablo, sed Arturo nun havas ĝin. 11. Li donas ĝin al Mario, ŝi dankas lin, kaj donas ĝin al Roberto. 12. Ili volis doni ĝin al Gertrudo, sed ŝi diris "Ne, mi dankas vin, mi ne ŝatas rigardi bildojn." 13. Ŝi marŝis de la tablo al la fenestro kaj diris "Mi preferas kudri." 14. Ŝi volis sidi en granda seĝo apud la fenestro. 15. La virino rigardis ŝin kaj diris "Mi donis la bildojn al vi, knaboj kaj knabinoj," ĉar ili estas interesaj bildoj. 16. Gertrudo diris "Vi estas bona al ni, sed mi volas sidi apud la pordo aŭ la fenestro. 17. Mi kolektis dolĉajn violojn en la ĝardeno, kaj nun mi volas rigardi la dolĉajn florojn, kaj kudri."

1. Today the boys and girls are in the big house. 2. They are standing by the table in a pleasant, bright room. 3. It has tall, wide windows. 4. A soft carpet lies on the floor under the table and chairs. 5. The carpet has beautiful colors: red, blue, yellow, and green. 6. A woman walked through the door and stood by the table. 7. She had interesting pictures and gave them to the boys and girls. 8. She said, "Do you want to see the pictures?" 9. "Yes, thank you," the children replied, and she handed them the pictures. 10. A large picture fell from the table, but Arturo has it now. 11. He gives it to Mario, she thanks him, and then gives it to Roberto. 12. They wanted to give it to Gertrude, but she said, "No, thank you, I don’t like looking at pictures." 13. She walked from the table to the window and said, "I prefer to sew." 14. She wanted to sit in a big chair by the window. 15. The woman looked at her and said, "I gave the pictures to you, boys and girls," because they are interesting pictures. 16. Gertrude said, "You are nice to us, but I want to sit by the door or the window. 17. I picked sweet violets in the garden, and now I want to look at the lovely flowers and sew."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Do the boys and girls wish to be good? 2. They gathered fresh flowers and gave them to the woman. 3. The happy children were in the garden, but now they are in the house. 4. The rooms in the house are light, because they have large wide windows. 5. The doors in the room are wide and high. 6. The carpets on the floor seem soft, and have various beautiful colors. 7. A large strong table stands near the door. 8. We can sit near the table and look through the windows. 9. Gertrude is-looking-at the various pictures. 10. She looks-at them, and seems to be happy. 11. She gave a picture to me and I thanked her. 12. Helen walked near the table and shook it. 13. Arthur did not see the pictures because they were lying on the floor. 14. He looked-at the pictures on the wall, but they are neither interesting nor beautiful. 15. Robert looked through the window, and saw us in the pleasant garden.

1. Do the boys and girls want to be good? 2. They picked fresh flowers and gave them to the woman. 3. The happy kids were in the garden, but now they're inside the house. 4. The rooms in the house are bright because they have big windows. 5. The doors in the room are wide and tall. 6. The carpets on the floor look soft and come in various beautiful colors. 7. A large sturdy table stands near the door. 8. We can sit by the table and look out through the windows. 9. Gertrude is looking at the different pictures. 10. She looks at them and seems happy. 11. She gave me a picture, and I thanked her. 12. Helen walked by the table and shook it. 13. Arthur didn't see the pictures because they were on the floor. 14. He looked at the pictures on the wall, but they are neither interesting nor pretty. 15. Robert looked out the window and saw us in the lovely garden.

LESSON VIII.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

38. A pronoun which refers to the same person or thing as the subject of the verb in the sentence, but is used in some other relation than subject of that verb, is said to be used reflexively, or to be a reflexive pronoun.

38. A pronoun that refers to the same person or thing as the subject of the verb in the sentence but is used in a different way than being the subject of that verb is said to be used reflexively, or to be a reflexive pronoun.

39. The first and second personal pronouns, mi, ni, and vi, (ci) are used for the reflexive pronouns of the first and second persons. There can be no ambiguity, since words such as "me, myself, us, ourselves," can refer to no one else than the person or persons speaking; while words such as "you, yourself, yourselves (thee, thyself)," can refer to no one else than the person or persons addressed:

39. The first and second personal pronouns, me, us, and you (or y'all), are used for the reflexive pronouns of the first and second persons. There’s no confusion here, since terms like "me, myself, us, ourselves" can only refer to the person or people speaking; while terms like "you, yourself, yourselves (thee, thyself)" can only refer to the person or people being addressed:

Mi vidas min, I see myself.
Mi diris al mi, I said to myself.
Ni havas tapiŝon sub ni, we have a carpet under us.
Ni amuzis nin, we amused ourselves.
(Ci trovas domon apud ci, thou findest a house near thee.)
Vi diras al vi, you say to yourself (yourselves).
Vi amuzas vin, you amuse yourself (yourselves).

I see myself.
I said to myself.
We have a carpet under us.
We amused ourselves.
(You find a house near you.)
You say to yourself (yourselves).
You amuse yourself (yourselves).

40. When the verb is in the third person, a pronoun of the third person, used otherwise than as the subject, might or might not refer to the subject of that verb. For example, "He sees a bird near him," may mean that the subject sees a bird near himself, or near another person. If such a pronoun of the third person is intended to refer to the subject of the verb, Esperanto uses a special reflexive pronoun si (accusative sin), which means him(self), her(self), it(self), them(selves), according to the gender and number of the verb:

40. When the verb is in the third person, a third person pronoun used in a way other than as the subject might or might not refer to the subject of that verb. For example, "He sees a bird near him" could mean that the subject sees a bird near himself or near someone else. If such a third person pronoun is meant to refer to the subject of the verb, Esperanto uses a special reflexive pronoun si (accusative sin), which means him(self), her(self), it(self), them(selves), depending on the gender and number of the verb:

Li amuzas sin, he amuses himself.
Arturo vidis birdon apud si, Arthur saw a bird near him(self).
Ŝi trovas floron apud si, she finds a flower near her(self).
Mario trovis sin sur blua tapiŝo, Mary found herself on a blue carpet.
La tapiŝo havas diversajn kolorojn en si, the carpet has various colors in it(self).
La birdo kaŝas sin sub la folioj, the bird hides itself under the leaves.
Ili amuzas sin, they amuse themselves.
La viroj havas seĝojn apud si, the men have chairs near them(selves).
La virinoj trovas florojn apud si, the women find flowers near them(selves).
La arboj havas ĉerizojn sur si, the trees have cherries on them(selves).
Sub si la infanoj trovis molan tapiŝon, under them(selves) the children found a soft carpet.

He amuses himself, he amuses himself.
Arthur saw a bird near him, Arthur saw a bird near him.
She finds a flower near her, she finds a flower near her.
Mary found herself on a blue carpet, Mary found herself on a blue carpet.
The carpet has various colors in it, the carpet has various colors in it.
The bird hides under the leaves, the bird hides under the leaves.
They amuse themselves, they amuse themselves.
The men have chairs near them, the men have chairs near them.
The women find flowers near them, the women find flowers near them.
The trees have cherries on them, the trees have cherries on them.
Under them the children found a soft carpet, under them the children found a soft carpet.

From the very fact that si always refers to the subject of the verb, it is evident that si can never itself be used as subject or part of the subject of the verb.

From the simple fact that si always refers to the subject of the verb, it’s clear that si can never be used as the subject or part of the subject of the verb.

REFLEXIVE VERBS.

41. A verb having a reflexive pronoun for its direct object is sometimes called a reflexive verb, from the fact that some languages have had or still have a special reflexive or middle form of the verb, to express an act of the subject on or for itself, or they have certain verbs whose use is chiefly or exclusively reflexive. The conjugation of a verb reflexively is therefore as follows:

41. A verb that includes a reflexive pronoun as its direct object is often referred to as a reflexive verb. This is because some languages have had or still have a unique reflexive or middle form of the verb that indicates an action the subject performs on or for itself, or they have specific verbs that are mainly or entirely used reflexively. The conjugation of a verb reflexively is therefore as follows:

mi amuzas min (mi min amuzas), I amuse myself.
vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourself.
li (ŝi, ĝi) amuzas sin (sin amuzas), he (she, it) amuses him (her, it)self.
ni amuzas nin (ni nin amuzas), we amuse ourselves.
vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourselves.
ili amuzas sin (ili sin amuzas), they amuse themselves.

I entertain myself, I amuse myself.
You entertain yourself, you amuse yourself.
He (she, it) entertains himself (herself, itself), he (she, it) amuses himself (herself, itself).
We entertain ourselves, we amuse ourselves.
You all entertain yourselves, you amuse yourselves.
They entertain themselves, they amuse themselves.

As Greek ετράποντο, they turned themselves; Latin exerceor, I exercise myself, vescor, I eat (I feed myself); German ich hüte mich, I beware (I guard myself); Spanish me alegro, or alégrome, I rejoice (I gladden myself); French il s'arrête, he halts (he stops himself).

As Greek ετράποντο, they turned themselves; Latin exerceor, I exercise myself, vescor, I eat (I feed myself); German ich hüte mich, I beware (I guard myself); Spanish me alegro, or alégrome, I rejoice (I gladden myself); French il s'arrête, he halts (he stops himself).

Vocabulary.
Alfredo, Alfred.
amuzi, to amuse.
antaŭ, before, in front of.
aparteni, to belong.
griza, gray.
iri, to go.
Johano, John.
kaŝi, to hide, to conceal.
komenci, to begin.
laŭdi, to praise.
legi, to read.
libro, book.
perdi, to lose.
skatolo, small box or case.
strato, street.
si, himself, etc. (40).
READING LESSON.

1. Johano kaj Alfredo amuzis sin en la ĝardeno. 2. Johano kaŝis sin, kaj Alfredo trovis Johanon. 3. Alfredo sin kaŝis en alta arbo, kaj Johano trovis Alberton. 4. Mario kaj Gertrudo sin kaŝis apud la floroj, kaj la knaboj trovis la knabinojn. 5. La knabinoj ne volas perdi sin en la agrabla kampo. 6. Johano komencis amuzi sin en luma ĉambro en la domo. 7. La muro havas interesajn bildojn sur si. 8. Tra la fenestro antaŭ si Johano rigardas la virojn kaj la virinojn sur la strato. 9. Li havas molan grizan tapiŝon sub si, kaj ne volas seĝon. 10. Li kaj Alfredo volis iri al la strato kaj amuzi sin. 11. Ili marŝis al la pordo, kaj trovis ruĝan skatolon antaŭ si. 12. En la skatolo estis libro, kaj Johano diris al si "La libro ne apartenas al mi." 13. Li diris al Alfredo "Ĉar ni trovis ĝin, mi volas legi la libron." 14. Virino antaŭ pordo komencis rigardi la knabojn, kaj ili diris al ŝi "Ĉu la libro apartenas al vi? Ni trovis ĝin en skatolo." 15. La virino diris "Jes, ni perdis ĝin, kaj mi dankas vin, ĉar vi donas al mi la skatolon kaj la libron." 16. Ŝi iris al la strato, kaj la knaboj iris al la domo.

1. Johano and Alfredo were having fun in the garden. 2. Johano hid, and Alfredo found him. 3. Alfredo hid in a tall tree, and Johano found him. 4. Mario and Gertrudo hid by the flowers, and the boys found the girls. 5. The girls don’t want to get lost in the pleasant field. 6. Johano started having fun in a bright room in the house. 7. The wall has interesting pictures on it. 8. Through the window in front of him, Johano watches the men and women on the street. 9. He has a soft gray carpet beneath him, and doesn’t want a chair. 10. He and Alfredo wanted to go out to the street and have fun. 11. They walked to the door and found a red box in front of them. 12. Inside the box was a book, and Johano said to himself, "The book doesn’t belong to me." 13. He told Alfredo, "Since we found it, I want to read the book." 14. A woman at the door started looking at the boys, and they said to her, "Does the book belong to you? We found it in a box." 15. The woman said, "Yes, we lost it, and I thank you for giving me the box and the book." 16. She went to the street, and the boys went back to the house.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The book in the gray box does not belong to me. 2. I found it in front of me, near the door. 3. You began to praise yourselves, but I do not praise myself. 4. They hid themselves, and I stood near them. 5. The birds sit on the tree, because it has ripe cherries on it. 6. Alfred amused himself on the street, but we like to amuse ourselves in the house. 7. The trees have good fruit on them. 8. She found herself in a beautiful light room. 9. The carpet on the floor had various colors in it, and the high wall had pictures on it. 10. The pictures had boys and girls in them. 11. The book belongs to her, but it fell from the box. 12. The table has red and blue and yellow flowers on it. 13. Did you see the doves near the flowers in front of (before) you? 14. The birds saw the fruit on the tree in front of them, and flew to the branches. 15. I sat on the bench in the garden, and began to read an interesting book. 16. They hid themselves in the leaves and began to sing. 17. The child is in a pleasant room.

1. The book in the gray box isn’t mine. 2. I found it in front of me, near the door. 3. You started complimenting yourselves, but I don’t do that. 4. They kept themselves hidden, while I stood nearby. 5. The birds are sitting in the tree because it has ripe cherries. 6. Alfred had fun outside, but we prefer to have fun inside the house. 7. The trees are full of good fruit. 8. She found herself in a beautifully lit room. 9. The carpet on the floor had various colors, and the tall wall was decorated with pictures. 10. The pictures featured boys and girls. 11. The book belongs to her, but it fell out of the box. 12. The table had red, blue, and yellow flowers on it. 13. Did you see the doves near the flowers in front of you? 14. The birds noticed the fruit on the tree in front of them and flew to the branches. 15. I sat on the bench in the garden and started reading an interesting book. 16. They hid in the leaves and began to sing. 17. The child is in a nice room.

LESSON IX.
LIMITATION OF THE THIRD PERSONAL PRONOUN.

42. Since there is a special reflexive pronoun of the third person, the third personal pronouns, li, ŝi, ĝi, ili, when used otherwise than as subjects, never refer to the subject of the verb, but always to some other person or thing:

42. Since there is a special reflexive pronoun for the third person, the third person pronouns, li, ŝi, ĝi, ili, when used in ways other than as subjects, never refer to the subject of the verb, but always to another person or thing:

La knabo laŭdas lin, the boy praises him (another person).
Ŝi donas pomojn al ŝi, she gives apples to her (to another person).
La birdo vidis ĝin, the bird saw it (something else than the bird).
La knaboj kaŝis ilin, the boys hid them (other persons or things).
Ili trovis ilin apud si, they found them (other persons or things) near them(selves).
La birdoj flugis al ili, the birds flew to them.

The boy praises him, the boy praises him (another person).
She gives apples to her, she gives apples to her (to another person).
The bird saw it, the bird saw it (something else than the bird).
The boys hid them, the boys hid them (other persons or things).
They found them, they found them (other persons or things) near them.
The birds flew to them, the birds flew to them.

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES.

43. Words like "my," "his," "your," which indicate ownership or some possessive relation, are called possessive adjectives. Possessive adjectives are formed from the personal pronouns by adding the adjective ending -a, as mia, my, via, your (cia, thy), lia, his, ŝia, her, ĝia, its, nia, our, via, your (plural), ilia, their. The limitation in the use of the third personal pronouns (42) is also true of the adjectives derived from them:

43. Words like "my," "his," and "your," which show ownership or possession, are called possessive adjectives. Possessive adjectives are created from personal pronouns by adding the adjective ending -a, such as mia, my, via, your (cia, thy), lia, his, ŝia, her, ĝia, its, nia, our, via, your (plural), ilia, their. The limitations in using third-person pronouns (42) also apply to the adjectives derived from them:

Mia domo kaj miaj ĝardenoj estas grandaj, my house and my gardens are large.
Johano sidas sur via seĝo, John is sitting in your chair.
Li havas lian ĉevalon, he has his (another person's) horse.
Ĉu vi legis ŝiajn librojn? Did you read her books?

My house and my gardens are big, my house and my gardens are large.
John is sitting in your chair, John is sitting in your chair.
He has his horse, he has his (another person's) horse.
Did you read her books? Did you read her books?

Sometimes these words are called possessive pronouns, although really they are not pronouns at all, but pronominal adjectives with a possessive meaning.

Sometimes these words are called possessive pronouns, but they aren't really pronouns at all; they're pronominal adjectives with a possessive meaning.

44. Reflexive possessive adjectives, like the reflexive pronoun, refer to the subject of the verb in the sentence. For the first and second persons, they are the same as the personal possessive adjectives. The reflexive possessive adjective of the third person is sia, his, her, its, their, formed by adding the ending -a to the reflexive pronoun si:

44. Reflexive possessive adjectives, just like reflexive pronouns, refer to the subject of the verb in the sentence. For the first and second persons, they are the same as personal possessive adjectives. The reflexive possessive adjective for the third person is sia, his, her, its, their, which is created by adding the ending -a to the reflexive pronoun si:

Mi havas miajn librojn sur mia tablo, I have my books on my table.
Johano perdis siajn librojn, John lost his (John's) books.
Mario estas en sia ĉambro, Mary is in her room.
La birdoj flugis al sia arbo, the birds flew to their tree.

I have my books on my table, I have my books on my table.
John lost his books, John lost his books.
Mary is in her room, Mary is in her room.
The birds flew to their tree, the birds flew to their tree.

PRONOMINAL USE OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES.

45. Possessive adjectives may be used predicatively, as "the book is mine," or may modify some word or words not expressed, as "mine are large." Instead of having special forms, like English mine, yours, hers, etc., Esperanto uses the regular possessive adjectives preceded by the article:

45. Possessive adjectives can be used in a predicative way, like "the book is mine," or can modify words that aren't stated, as in "mine are large." Instead of having unique forms, like English mine, yours, hers, etc., Esperanto uses the standard possessive adjectives with the article in front:

La granda libro estas la mia, the large book is mine.
La via estas granda, la miaj estas belaj, yours is large, mine are beautiful.
Ili havas la sian, sed ne la lian, they have theirs, but not his.
La iliaj ŝajnas esti bonaj, theirs seem to be good.

The big book is mine, the large book is mine.
Yours is big, mine are beautiful, yours is large, mine are beautiful.
They have theirs, but not his, they have theirs, but not his.
Theirs seem to be good, theirs seem to be good.

Vocabulary.
diro, saying, remark.
ĝis, as far as, up to, down to.
hieraŭ, yesterday.
juna, young.
kapti, to catch, to seize.
kato, cat.
kolera, angry.
lavi, to wash.
manĝo, meal.
nesto, nest.
pasero, sparrow.
patro, father.
post, after, behind.
surprizi, to surprise.
teni, to hold, to keep.
vizaĝo, face.
READING LESSON.

1. Hieraŭ mi perdis mian grizan katon. 2. Ilia kato kaptis nian birdon. 3. Via kolera diro surprizis mian patron. 4. Ĉu la granda kampo apartenas al ŝia patro? 5. Ne, ĝi ne estas la lia. 6. La lia estas bela, sed mi preferas la mian. 7. Ĉu vi ŝatas vian libron aŭ la ilian? 8. Li havas nek siajn ĉevalojn nek la iliajn. 9. La knabinoj ŝajnas esti koleraj. 10. Ili komencis legi siajn librojn. 11. La viro kaptis kaj tenis siajn ĉevalojn, sed li ne trovis iliajn ĉevalojn. 12. Ŝia libro kuŝas sur la planko, post ŝia seĝo. 13. Ŝi ne trovis ilian libron, sed la junaj infanoj trovis la nian.

1. Yesterday I lost my gray cat. 2. Their cat caught our bird. 3. Your angry words surprised my father. 4. Does the big field belong to her father? 5. No, it’s not his. 6. His is beautiful, but I prefer mine. 7. Do you like your book or theirs? 8. He has neither his horses nor theirs. 9. The girls seem to be angry. 10. They started reading their books. 11. The man caught and held his horses, but he didn’t find their horses. 12. Her book lies on the floor, behind her chair. 13. She didn’t find their book, but the young children found ours.

LA KATO KAJ LA PASERO.

Griza kato iris de la domo ĝis la strato. Ĝi vidis paseron antaŭ si, kaj volis manĝi ĝin. La kato staris post granda arbo, kaj kaptis la paseron. La pasero diris "Bona kato lavas sin antaŭ sia manĝo, sed vi ne lavis vian vizaĝon." La interesa diro surprizis la katon. La kato ne tenis la paseron, sed komencis lavi sian vizaĝon. La pasero flugis de la kato ĝis la arbo. La kolera kato diris "Mi perdis mian manĝon, ĉar mi komencis lavi min antaŭ la manĝo!" Nun la katoj ne lavas sin antaŭ la manĝoj. Ili havas siajn manĝojn, kaj post la manĝoj ili lavas la vizaĝojn. La paseroj ne surprizas ilin nun, sed ili tenas la paserojn. La katoj estas feliĉaj, sed la paseroj ne estas feliĉaj. La junaj paseroj volas flugi al la nestoj en la arboj.

Griza cat walked from the house to the street. It saw a bird in front of it and wanted to eat it. The cat stood behind a big tree and caught the bird. The bird said, "Good cats wash themselves before their meal, but you haven't washed your face." The interesting remark surprised the cat. The cat didn't hold onto the bird but started to wash its face instead. The bird flew from the cat to the tree. The angry cat said, "I lost my meal because I started washing before eating!" Now, cats don’t wash themselves before meals. They eat their food, and after the meals, they wash their faces. The birds don’t surprise them anymore, but they catch the birds. The cats are happy, but the birds are not happy. The young birds want to fly to the nests in the trees.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The boys are not in their (own) house, but they are in his. 2 Is the large beautiful house yours? 3. The woman walked through the door of their house, as far as her room. 4. The room has interesting pictures on its walls. 5. We praised their flowers yesterday, and they gave them to us. 6. Their books are in their (the books') box. 7. They are on their (the boys') table. 8. The gray cat was angry because it did not hold the bird. 9. The sparrow surprised it, and it commenced to wash its face. 10. The sparrow wished to fly as far as the tall tree, but the cat held it. 11. The sparrow said "A good cat washes its face, but you are not a good cat." 12. The sparrow was angry because the cat seized it and held it. 13. The bird did not lose its meal, but the angry cat lost its meal. 14. Do you see his cat or hers? 15. I see both his and hers, but ours is not in our garden. 16. My father is a tall strong man. 17. I like to look at him. 18. The children saw the young birds in the nest.

1. The boys aren't in their own house; they're in his. 2. Is the big beautiful house yours? 3. The woman walked through the door of their house, all the way to her room. 4. The room has interesting pictures on the walls. 5. We complimented their flowers yesterday, and they gave them to us. 6. Their books are in their box. 7. They are on their table. 8. The gray cat was upset because it didn't catch the bird. 9. The sparrow surprised it, and it started to wash its face. 10. The sparrow wanted to fly all the way to the tall tree, but the cat caught it. 11. The sparrow said, "A good cat washes its face, but you aren't a good cat." 12. The sparrow was mad because the cat grabbed it and held it. 13. The bird didn't lose its meal, but the angry cat lost its meal. 14. Do you see his cat or hers? 15. I see both his and hers, but ours isn't in our garden. 16. My dad is a tall strong man. 17. I like to look at him. 18. The kids saw the young birds in the nest.

LESSON X.
THE ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECTION.

46. When the verb in a sentence expresses motion, the word indicating the place, person or thing toward which the motion is directed is given the accusative ending. This is also true if the word is the complement of any preposition which does not itself sufficiently indicate motion in a certain direction. (The prepositions al, to, toward, ĝis, as far as, tra, through, express motion in the direction of their complements, and could not well be used except in a sentence whose verb expresses motion. Consequently the accusative is not used after any of these three):

46. When a verb in a sentence shows movement, the word that indicates the place, person, or thing that the movement is directed toward takes the accusative ending. This also applies if the word is the complement of any preposition that doesn't clearly show movement in a specific direction. (The prepositions al, to, toward, ĝis, as far as, tra, through, indicate movement toward their complements and aren't typically used in sentences where the verb doesn't express motion. Therefore, the accusative isn't used after any of these three):

Li iris ĝardenon, he went to the garden ("gardenward").
La viro iros Bostonon, the man will go to Boston ("Bostonward").

He went to the garden, he went to the garden.
The man will go to Boston, the man will go to Boston.

Cf. English "he went home," "he went homeward," etc.

Cf. English "he went home," "he was headed home," etc.

Li estis en la ĝardeno, kaj kuris en la domon, he was in the garden and ran into the house.
Ĝi ne estas sur la tablo, ĝi falis sur la plankon, it is not on the table, it fell upon the floor.
Ili falis sub la tablon ĝis la planko, they fell under the table as far as the floor (direction expressed by whole prepositional phrase).
Mi iris tra la domo en mian ĉambron, I went through the house into my room.

He was in the garden, and ran into the house, he was in the garden and ran into the house.
It’s not on the table, it fell on the floor, it is not on the table, it fell upon the floor.
They fell under the table to the floor, they fell under the table as far as the floor (direction expressed by whole prepositional phrase).
I walked through the house into my room, I went through the house into my room.

THE ARTICLE FOR THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE.

47. In many sentences where the possessor is already sufficiently indicated, English nevertheless uses a possessive adjective, as in "I wash my face," "he shakes his head," but on the other hand omits it entirely with certain words indicating relationship, as in "Brother gave it to me," etc. In both cases Esperanto uses the article instead of the possessive adjective, unless the fact of possession is to be emphasized:

47. In many sentences where the possessor is already clear, English still uses a possessive adjective, like in "I wash my face" and "he shakes his head." However, it completely omits the possessive in certain words indicating relationships, such as "Brother gave it to me," etc. In both cases, Esperanto uses the article instead of the possessive adjective, unless the fact of possession needs to be emphasized:

Mi lavas la vizaĝon, I wash my face.
Li skuas la kapon, he shakes his head.
La patro estas alta, Father is tall.
Mi donis ĝin al la patro, I gave it to Father.

I wash my face, I wash my face.
He shakes his head, he shakes his head.
Father is tall, Father is tall.
I gave it to Father, I gave it to Father.

APPOSITION.

48. English often uses the preposition "of" between two words where no idea of possession really exists, as "the city of Boston." Since nouns used in apposition refer to the same thing, and are in the same grammatical construction, Esperanto does not use a preposition:

48. English frequently uses the preposition "of" between two words even when there's no actual sense of possession, like in "the city of Boston." Since nouns that are in apposition refer to the same thing and share the same grammatical structure, Esperanto doesn't use a preposition:

La urbo Bostono estas granda, the city (of) Boston is large.
Mia amiko Johano estas alta, my friend John is tall.
Ĉu vi ne konas min, vian amikon? do you not know me, your friend?

Boston is a big city, the city (of) Boston is large.
My friend John is tall, my friend John is tall.
Don't you know me, your friend? do you not know me, your friend?

Vocabulary.
arabo, arab.
baldaŭ, soon.
Bostono, Boston.
frato, brother.
kamelo, camel.
kapo, head.
kolo, neck.
korpo, body.
meti, to put, to place.
nazo, nose.
nur, only, merely.
puŝi, to push.
trans, across.
tuta, whole, entire, all.
urbo, city.
varma, warm.
LA ARABO KAJ LA KAMELO.

Arabo sidis en sia domo en la urbo. Apud domo trans la strato li vidis kamelon. La kamelo iris trans la straton ĝis la pordo, kaj diris al la arabo, "Frato, mi ne estas varma, mi volas meti nur la nazon en vian varman domon." La arabo skuis la kapon, sed la kamelo metis la nazon tra la pordo en la ĉambron. La kamelo komencis puŝi sian tutan vizaĝon en la domon. Baldaŭ li havis la kapon ĝis la kolo en la domo. Post la kapo iris la kolo en ĝin, kaj baldaŭ la tuta korpo estis en la domo. La arabo estis kolera, ĉar li ne volis havi tutan kamelon en sia domo. Li kuris al la kamelo, kaptis lin, tenis lin, kaj diris, "Frato, vi volis meti nur la nazon en mian domon. La ĉambro ne estas granda sed ĝi estas la mia, kaj mi preferas sidi en ĝi." "Via diro estas bona," diris la kamelo, "via domo ne estas granda, sed ĝi estas varma, kaj mi ŝatas stari en ĝi. Mi preferas stari kaj kuŝi en ĝi, kaj mi donos al vi mian arbon trans la strato. Ĉu vi ne volas iri sub la arbon?" Kaj la kamelo puŝis la arabon de lia domo en la straton de la urbo. La kamelo nun trovis sin en varma ĉambro, sed la juna arabo staris trans la strato kaj ne estis varma.

The Arab was sitting in his house in the city. Across the street, he saw a camel. The camel walked across the street to the door and said to the Arab, "Brother, I’m not warm; I just want to put my nose in your warm house." The Arab shook his head, but the camel pushed its nose through the door into the room. The camel started to push its entire face into the house. Soon, it had its head all the way inside. After the head, its neck followed, and before long, the whole body was inside the house. The Arab was angry because he didn't want a whole camel in his house. He ran to the camel, grabbed it, held it, and said, "Brother, you only wanted to put your nose in my house. The room isn’t big, but it's mine, and I prefer to sit in it." "What you say is good," said the camel, "your house isn’t big, but it’s warm, and I like standing in it. I prefer to stand and lie down in it, and I will give you my tree across the street. Don’t you want to go under the tree?" And the camel pushed the Arab out of his house and into the street of the city. The camel now found itself in a warm room, but the young Arab stood across the street and was not warm.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The cat ran across the street. 2. Across the street it found a sparrow. 3. It caught the bird, but began to wash its face, and the sparrow flew to the nest. 4. I went into the garden as far as the large tree. 5. I did not hold my book, and it fell upon the floor. 6. It began to fall under the table, but I seized it. 7. My brother pushed the books into their box, and put it on the table. 8. We went to the city of Boston yesterday and into a beautiful house. 9. The arab shook his head and said, "No." 10. But the camel commenced to go through the door. 11. His remark did not seem to surprise the camel. 12. The camel pushed its head and neck, and soon its whole body into the warm house. 13. It wished to put merely its nose into it. 14. The arab was angry, because it pushed itself into his house. 15. He said, "Brother, the house is mine, and I do not wish to have you in it." 16. But soon after the remark, the whole camel was in the house. 17. He pushed the young arab into the street. 18. He went across the street and stood upon the grass under a tree.

1. The cat ran across the street. 2. On the other side, it found a sparrow. 3. It caught the bird but then started to wash its face, allowing the sparrow to fly back to its nest. 4. I went into the garden as far as the big tree. 5. I didn't hold my book, and it fell to the floor. 6. It started to slide under the table, but I grabbed it. 7. My brother pushed the books into their box and placed it on the table. 8. We went to Boston yesterday and visited a beautiful house. 9. The Arab shook his head and said, "No." 10. But the camel began to walk through the door. 11. The camel didn’t seem surprised by his comment. 12. The camel pushed its head and neck through, and soon its whole body was inside the warm house. 13. It only wanted to stick its nose in. 14. The Arab was angry because the camel forced its way into his house. 15. He said, "Brother, the house is mine, and I don't want you in it." 16. But shortly after his comment, the entire camel was in the house. 17. It pushed the young Arab out into the street. 18. He crossed the street and stood on the grass under a tree.

LESSON XI.
POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS.

49. The preposition de is used to express possession or connection:

49. The preposition de is used to show possession or connection:

La muroj de la domo, the walls of the house.
La koloroj de la floroj, the colors of the flowers.
La libro de la knabo, the book of the boy (the boy's book).
Branĉo de la arbo, a branch of the tree.
La ĝardeno de la viroj, the garden of the men (the men's garden).

The walls of the house, the walls of the house.
The colors of the flowers, the colors of the flowers.
The boy's book, the boy's book.
A branch of the tree, a branch of the tree.
The men's garden, the men's garden.

IMPERSONAL VERBS.

50. Verbs with an impersonal or indeterminate subject, as "it rains," "it is snowing," are called impersonal, because there is no actual subject, the word "it" serving merely as an introductory particle. No such particle is used with impersonal verbs in Esperanto:

50. Verbs with an impersonal or unclear subject, like "it rains" or "it is snowing," are called impersonal because there is no real subject; the word "it" acts just as a starter. In Esperanto, there is no such starter used with impersonal verbs:

Pluvas, it rains, it is raining.
Neĝis hieraŭ, it snowed yesterday.

Pluvas, it's raining.
Neĝis hieraŭ, it snowed yesterday.

VERBS PRECEDING THEIR SUBJECTS.

51. When the verb in a sentence precedes its subject, English often uses an introductory particle, such as "there," "it." In Esperanto no such particles are needed:

51. When the verb in a sentence comes before its subject, English often uses an introductory word, like "there" or "it." In Esperanto, no such words are necessary:

Estas floroj sur la tablo, there are flowers on the table.
Estis Johano, ne Alfredo, en la ĝardeno, it was John, not Alfred, in the garden.
Estas domo en la kampo, there is a house in the field.
Estis mi, it was I.

There are flowers on the table, estas floroj sur la tablo.
It was John, not Alfred, in the garden, estis Johano, ne Alfredo, en la ĝardeno.
There is a house in the field, estas domo en la kampo.
It was me, estis mi.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS.

52. Words like aŭ, kaj, nek, sed, which join words, word-groups, or sentences together are conjunctions. All the conjunctions given so far connect words, phrases, or sentences of similar rank or kind. These are called coordinating conjunctions, and the words, phrases, or sentences connected by them are said to be coordinate:

52. Words like aŭ, kaj, nek, sed, which link words, phrases, or sentences together are conjunctions. All the conjunctions listed so far connect words, phrases, or sentences of the same type or rank. These are known as coordinating conjunctions, and the words, phrases, or sentences they connect are referred to as coordinate:

Ĉu vi marŝas aŭ kuras?
( connects the verbs.)

Are you walking or running?
(Or connects the verbs.)

Ŝi iris, kaj ni estis feliĉaj.
(Kaj connects the sentences.)

She went, and we were happy.
(And connects the sentences.)

Nek vi nek mi vidis ĝin.
(The second nek connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and adverbial.)

Neither you nor I see it.
(The second neither connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and adverbial.)

Aŭ li aŭ ŝi perdis la libron.
(The second connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and adverbial.)

Either he or she lost the book.
(The second or connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and adverbial.)

Ĝi falis sur la seĝon, sed ne sur la plankon.
(Sed connects the phrases.)

It fell on the chair, but not on the floor.
(But connects the phrases.)

Li ne ŝatis ĝin. Tamen li tenis ĝin.
(Tamen connects the sentences.)

He didn't like it. Still, he held on to it.
(However connects the sentences.)

A phrase is a word-group forming an expression, but not containing a verb, as "through the house," "of the man," "before me," etc.

A phrase is a group of words that creates an expression but doesn't include a verb, like "through the house," "of the man," "before me," etc.

Coordinating conjunctions may be further classified according to their meaning: is disjunctive, connecting alternates, and expressing separation. Kaj is copulative, expressing union. Nek is disjunctive, expressing separation and also negation. Sed is adversative, expressing opposition, contrast, or modification of a previous statement. Tamen is adversative, affirming something in spite of a previous objection or concession. Do, so, then, consequently, is argumentative, expressing a logical inference or result in a somewhat conversational manner.

Coordinating conjunctions can also be categorized based on their meaning: is disjunctive, linking alternatives and indicating separation. Kaj is copulative, indicating connection. Nek is disjunctive, indicating separation and also negation. Sed is adversative, showing opposition, contrast, or modification of a previous statement. Tamen is adversative, confirming something despite an earlier objection or concession. Do, so, then, consequently, is argumentative, indicating a logical conclusion or result in a somewhat conversational tone.

Vocabulary.
akvo, water.
amiko, friend.
ankaŭ, also.
bezoni, to need.
dezerto, desert.
fidela, faithful.
mono, money.
neĝi, to snow.
pluvi, to rain.
porti, to carry.
riĉa, rich, wealthy.
sablo, sand.
sako, sack, bag.
seka, dry.
tamen, nevertheless.
trinki, to drink.
veni, to come.
vojo, road, way.
LA ARABO EN LA DEZERTO.

Arabo iris trans grandan sekan dezerton. Kamelo, lia fidela amiko, portis lin. La kamelo ankaŭ portis belajn tapiŝojn, ĉar la arabo estis riĉa viro. La arabo havis ne nur tapiŝojn, sed ankaŭ sakojn. En la sakoj estis akvo, ĉar en la dezerto nek pluvas nek neĝas. La viro trinkis akvon, kaj ankaŭ donis akvon al sia kamelo. La kamelo marŝis kaj marŝis, sed ne venis al la domo de la arabo, ĉar ili perdis la vojon. La suno brilis, kaj la sablo de la dezerto ŝajnis varma. La arabo ne trovis la vojon, kaj baldaŭ li ne havis akvon. Tamen la kamelo marŝis kaj marŝis, kaj baldaŭ la arabo vidis sakon antaŭ si, sur la seka sablo. Li estis feliĉa kaj diris al si "Ĉu estas akvo en ĝi? Mi volas trinki, kaj volas doni akvon al mia fidela kamelo." Li ankaŭ volis lavi la tutan vizaĝon en la akvo, ĉar li estis varma. Post sia diro li kaptis la sakon, kaj komencis rigardi en ĝin. Li metis la nazon en ĝin, sed ne trovis akvon en la sako. Nek li nek lia fidela kamelo havis akvon, ĉar estis nur mono en la sako. La arabo estis kolera, ĉar li ne volis monon, li bezonis akvon. Li havis monon en sia domo en la urbo, kaj volis trovi akvon. Ĉu li tamen metis la sakon trans la kolon de sia kamelo? Ne, li ne volis meti ĝin sur sian kamelon, ĉar li estis kolera. Li ne tenis la sakon, sed ĝi falis sur la sablon, kaj kuŝis apud li. La sako nun kuŝas sur la sablo de la granda dezerto, kaj la mono estas en ĝi.

An Arab was crossing the vast desert. A camel, his loyal friend, carried him. The camel also carried beautiful rugs because the Arab was a wealthy man. The Arab had not only rugs but also bags. In the bags was water, because in the desert, it neither rains nor snows. The man drank water and also gave water to his camel. The camel walked and walked but did not reach the Arab's home because they lost their way. The sun shone, and the sand of the desert felt hot. The Arab couldn't find the path, and soon he ran out of water. Yet the camel continued to walk, and soon the Arab saw a bag ahead of him on the dry sand. He was happy and said to himself, "Is there water in it? I want to drink and want to give water to my loyal camel." He also wanted to wash his whole face in the water because he was hot. After saying this, he grabbed the bag and began to look inside it. He stuck his nose in it but found no water in the bag. Neither he nor his loyal camel had water, for there was only money in the bag. The Arab was angry because he didn't want money; he needed water. He had money in his house in the city and wanted to find water. But did he put the bag over his camel's neck? No, he didn't want to put it on his camel because he was angry. He didn't hold the bag, and it fell onto the sand, lying next to him. The bag now lies on the sand of the great desert, and the money is inside it.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Today it is raining, but yesterday it was snowing. 2. Did your friend John carry his chair into the house? 3. I saw your good friends on the way to the city. 4. Is the large sack behind the door theirs? 5. Neither she nor her brother saw the whole city. 6. They went to the city of Boston and lost their way. 7. There are interesting houses across the street. 8. The body of a camel is large, and its neck is long. 9. The camel pushed its head into the house of the arab, and he was angry. 10. On the sand in the desert there lies a sack. 11. In the sack there is money. 12. The arab was warm, and wished to drink water. 13. He also wished to give water to the faithful camel. 14. Nevertheless, he found only money in the sack. 15. He was angry, and did not keep the sack. 16. Yesterday he wished to find money, but today he prefers water. 17. Nevertheless there is only sand in the desert. 18. He wished to come from the dry desert to the house of a faithful friend. 19. Both he and his friends are rich. 20. They went to his house yesterday, and came to theirs today. 21. They do not need money.

1. Today it’s raining, but yesterday it snowed. 2. Did your friend John bring his chair into the house? 3. I saw your good friends on the way to the city. 4. Is the big sack behind the door theirs? 5. Neither she nor her brother saw the whole city. 6. They went to Boston and got lost. 7. There are interesting houses across the street. 8. A camel's body is large, and its neck is long. 9. The camel stuck its head into the Arab's house, and he was angry. 10. On the sand in the desert, there’s a sack. 11. Inside the sack, there’s money. 12. The Arab was hot and wanted to drink water. 13. He also wanted to give water to the loyal camel. 14. However, he only found money in the sack. 15. He was upset and didn’t keep the sack. 16. Yesterday he wanted to find money, but today he prefers water. 17. Still, there’s only sand in the desert. 18. He wanted to leave the dry desert and go to the house of a loyal friend. 19. Both he and his friends are wealthy. 20. They went to his house yesterday and came to theirs today. 21. They don’t need money.

LESSON XII.
INDIRECT STATEMENTS.

53. A statement made indirectly by means of a clause dependent upon a verb meaning "say," "think," "know," "believe," or a similar expression, as in "I know that he came," "I hear that he is good," is called an indirect statement. (The direct statement is "he came," "he is good.") An indirect statement is joined to the main verb or sentence by the subordinating conjunction ke, that.

53. An indirect statement is a statement made through a clause that depends on a verb meaning "say," "think," "know," "believe," or a similar expression, as in "I know that he came," "I hear that he is good." (The direct statement is "he came," "he is good.") An indirect statement is connected to the main verb or sentence by the subordinating conjunction ke, that.

Mi diras ke li estas bona
,
I say that he is good.

Johano diras ke vi venis hieraŭ
,
John says that you came yesterday.

Ŝi opinias ke estas mono en la sako
,
she thinks that there is money in the bag.

Ni vidas ke neĝas
,
we see that it is snowing.

A clause is a group of words including a verb, which is dependent upon or subordinate to a main verb or sentence, as "—that he came," "—when he went," "—that he is good," etc.

A clause is a group of words that includes a verb and depends on or is subordinate to a main verb or sentence, like "—that he came," "—when he went," "—that he is good," etc.

In English the subordinating conjunction may sometimes be omitted, either "I think that he is good," or "I think he is good," being usually permissible. But in Esperanto there is no variation, and the conjunction ke is never omitted.

In English, you can sometimes leave out the subordinating conjunction, so both "I think that he is good" and "I think he is good" are usually acceptable. But in Esperanto, there’s no option to skip it; the conjunction ke is never left out.

THE INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN ONI.

54. When an indefinite personal pronoun is desired, as in the expressions "one knows," "they say," "people say," "you can see," etc., the indefinite personal pronoun oni is used. This pronoun may also be used in translating such expressions as "it is said," "I am told," etc.:

54. When you need an indefinite personal pronoun, like in the phrases "one knows," "they say," "people say," "you can see," etc., the indefinite personal pronoun oni is used. This pronoun can also be used to translate expressions like "it is said," "I am told," etc.:

Oni diras ke li estas riĉa, they say (one says) that he is rich.
Oni vidas ke ili estas amikoj, one sees that they are friends.
Mi opinias ke oni ŝatas lin, I think that people like him (that he is liked).
Oni diris al mi ke estas sablo en la dezerto, I was told (people said to me) that there is sand in the desert.
Oni opinias ke ŝi estas feliĉa, it is thought (one thinks) that she is happy.
Ĉu oni vidis nin en la ĝardeno? Were we seen (did people see us) in the garden?
Oni ŝatas agrablajn infanojn, people like agreeable children (agreeable children are liked).

People say that he is rich, they say that he is rich.
It’s clear that they are friends, one sees that they are friends.
I think that people like him, I think that people like him.
I was told that there is sand in the desert, I was told that there is sand in the desert.
It is thought that she is happy, it is thought that she is happy.
Were we seen in the garden? Did people see us in the garden?
People like nice kids, people like nice kids.

THE FUTURE TENSE.

55. The future tense of the verb expresses an act or state as about to take place, or as one that will take place in future time. The ending of this tense is -os, as kuros, will run, flugos, will fly, brilos, will shine. The conjugation of esti and also of vidi in the future tense is as follows:

55. The future tense of the verb describes an action or state that is about to happen or will happen later. The ending of this tense is -os, as in kuros, will run, flugos, will fly, brilos, will shine. The conjugation of esti and vidi in the future tense is as follows:

mi estos, I shall be.
vi estos, you will be.
li (ŝi, ĝi) estos, he (she, it) will be.
ni estos, we shall be.
vi estos, you (plural) will be.
ili estos, they will be.
mi vidos, I shall see.
vi vidos, you will see.
li (ŝi, ĝi) vidos, he (she, it) will see.
ni vidos, we shall see.
vi vidos, you (plural) will see.
ili vidos, they will see.
Vocabulary.
aŭdi, to hear.
blovi, to blow.
greno, grain (wheat, corn, etc.).
ke, that (conjunction).
kontraŭ, against.
montri, to show, to point out.
norda, north, northern.
nova, new.
okcidenta, west, western.
oni, (see 54).
opinii, to think, to opine.
orienta, east, eastern.
pluvo, rain.
suda, south, southern.
velki, to wilt, to wither.
vento, wind.
ventoflago, weathercock.
vetero, weather.
LA VENTOFLAGO.

Estis varma vetero, la suno brilis, kaj suda vento blovis. Tamen la nova ventoflago sur la domo diris al si, "La sudan venton mi ne ŝatas. Mi preferas orientan venton." La vento orienta aŭdis la diron kaj ĝi venis kontraŭ la ventoflagon. Pluvis kaj pluvis, kaj oni estis kolera kontraŭ la ventoflago, ĉar ĝi montras orientan venton. Ĝi diris, "Pluvas nun, sed la greno en la kampoj bezonos sekan veteron. Oni estos kolera kontraŭ mi, ĉar mi montras orientan venton." La okcidenta vento aŭdis la ventoflagon, kaj baldaŭ venis. Ĝi ne estis forta, sed ĝi estis seka kaj agrabla vento, kaj ne portis pluvon. La viroj, virinoj, kaj junaj infanoj volis trinki, sed ili ne havis akvon. La greno kaj la floroj velkis, kaj la frukto ankaŭ falis. La nova ventoflago diris, "Oni estos kolera kontraŭ mi, ĉar ne pluvas. Oni opinios ke, ĉar mi montras okcidentan venton, la frukto falas, kaj la greno kaj floroj velkas. Mi ŝatas montri nek okcidentan nek orientan venton!" Norda vento aŭdis kaj venis al la ventoflago. La vetero ne estis agrabla, kaj la virinoj kaj la junaj infanoj ne estis varmaj. Neĝis, kaj oni estis kolera. Oni diris "La greno kaj la frukto bezonas varman veteron, sed hodiaŭ neĝas. Ni preferas la sudan venton. Ni havis ĝin, antaŭ la orienta, la okcidenta, kaj la norda ventoj. La ventoflago ne estas fidela amiko al ni. Ĝi ne montras bonajn ventojn, kaj ni volas rompi ĝin!" Oni kuris al la domo, kaptis la novan ventoflagon, kaj ankaŭ rompis ĝin. Ĝi falis, kaj kuŝis sur la vojo antaŭ la domo.

It was a warm day, the sun was shining, and a southern breeze was blowing. However, the new weather vane on the house said to itself, "I don't like the southern wind. I prefer the eastern wind." The eastern wind heard this and came to the weather vane. It rained and rained, and people were angry at the weather vane because it displayed an eastern wind. It said, "It's raining now, but the grain in the fields will need dry weather. They will be angry at me because I show an eastern wind." The western wind heard the weather vane and soon arrived. It wasn't strong, but it was a dry and pleasant wind, and it didn't bring rain. The men, women, and young children wanted to drink, but they had no water. The grain and flowers wilted, and the fruit also fell. The new weather vane said, "They will be angry at me because it's not raining. They'll think that because I show a western wind, the fruit is falling, and the grain and flowers are wilting. I don't like showing either a western or an eastern wind!" The northern wind heard and came to the weather vane. The weather wasn't pleasant, and the women and young children weren't warm. It snowed, and people were angry. They said, "The grain and fruit need warm weather, but today it’s snowing. We prefer the southern wind. We had it before the eastern, western, and northern winds. The weather vane isn't a loyal friend to us. It doesn't show good winds, and we want to break it!" They ran to the house, grabbed the new weather vane, and broke it. It fell and lay on the road in front of the house.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. One can see that the weathercock points-out the winds. 2. They say that the west wind will be a dry wind. 3. The weathercock now shows that an agreeable south wind blows. 4. People will be angry with (against) the weathercock, because it points-out a north wind. 5. A north wind is not warm, and the grain and fruit will need a warm wind. 6. It snowed, and the young children were not warm, because the north wind blew. 7. People will like a south wind, but an east wind will carry rain. 8. Can one find money in the desert? 9. Do you think (that) he is in the house? 10. He is said to be (they say that he is) on the street. 11. It is thought (people think) that the camel is a faithful friend. 12. I am told (people tell me) that the camel has a large body, and a long neck. 13. One can see that it is not beautiful. 14. People do not like to drink warm water. 15. Nevertheless we shall drink warm water in the city. 16. It was beautiful weather yesterday, but today we shall have good weather also. 17. I think that a warm wind will blow soon. 18. My friend has a beautiful new house.

1. You can see that the weathercock indicates the winds. 2. They say that the west wind will be a dry wind. 3. The weathercock now shows that a pleasant south wind is blowing. 4. People will be upset with the weathercock because it indicates a north wind. 5. A north wind is not warm, and the grain and fruit will need a warm wind. 6. It snowed, and the little kids weren’t warm because the north wind was blowing. 7. People will prefer a south wind, but an east wind will bring rain. 8. Can you find money in the desert? 9. Do you think he’s in the house? 10. They say he’s on the street. 11. People believe that the camel is a loyal friend. 12. I’ve been told that the camel has a big body and a long neck. 13. You can see that it’s not beautiful. 14. People don’t like to drink warm water. 15. Still, we will drink warm water in the city. 16. The weather was beautiful yesterday, but today we’ll have good weather too. 17. I think a warm wind will blow soon. 18. My friend has a beautiful new house.

LESSON XIII.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN TIU.

56. The demonstrative pronoun tiu, that, is used to indicate a person or a definitely specified thing. The plural is tiuj, those:

56. The demonstrative pronoun tiu, that, is used to refer to a person or a clearly defined thing. The plural is tiuj, those:

Tiu estas la via, kaj mi volas tiun, that is yours, and I wish that one.
Tiuj estos koleraj kontraŭ vi, those will be angry with you.
Li aŭdis tiujn, he heard those (persons, or things).

This is yours, and I want that one, that is yours, and I wish that one.
They will be angry with you, those will be angry with you.
He heard those, he heard those (people or things).

57. The demonstrative pronoun tiu is also used as a pronominal adjective, in agreement with a noun:

57. The demonstrative pronoun tiu is also used as a pronominal adjective, matching a noun:

Tiu vento estos varma, that wind will be warm.
Mi vidas tiun ventoflagon, I see that weathercock.
Tiuj infanoj estas junaj, those children are young.
Mi trovos tiujn librojn, I shall find those books.

That wind will be warm, that wind will be warm.
I see that weather vane, I see that weathercock.
Those kids are young, those children are young.
I will find those books, I shall find those books.

TENSES IN INDIRECT QUOTATIONS.

58. The verb in an indirect statement (53) or an indirect question remains in the same tense in which it would be if the statement or question were direct. (In English this is true only if the introductory verb is present or future, since after an introductory past tense the tense of the indirect quotation is changed, and am, is, are, have, will become was, were, had, would, etc.)

58. The verb in an indirect statement (53) or an indirect question stays in the same tense it would be in if the statement or question were direct. (In English, this is only the case if the introductory verb is present or future, since after an introductory past tense, the tense of the indirect quotation changes, and am, is, are, have, will become was, were, had, would, etc.)

Mi diras ke li estas bona , I say that he is good.
" diris " " " " , I said that he was good.
" diros " " " " , I shall say that he is good.
Li miras ĉu mi aŭdas , he wonders whether I hear.
" miris " " " , he wondered whether I heard.
" miros " " " , he will wonder whether I hear.
Mi opiniis ke ĝi estas bona,I thought that it was good (I thought "it is good").
Oni miris ĉu li venos,they wondered whether he would come (they wondered "will he come?").

An indirect question is introduced by ĉu, whether, after verbs meaning "ask," "wonder," "know," etc.: Mi miras ĉu li venis, I wonder whether he came. Oni demandas ĉu li estas riĉa, people ask whether he is rich.

An indirect question is introduced by ĉu, meaning "whether," after verbs like "ask," "wonder," "know," etc.: Mi miras ĉu li venis, I wonder whether he came. Oni demandas ĉu li estas riĉa, people ask whether he is rich.

FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS.

59. Feminine nouns corresponding to distinctly masculine nouns such as frato, knabo, viro, may be formed from these by inserting the suffix -in- just before the noun-ending -o:

59. Feminine nouns that correspond to clearly masculine nouns like frato, knabo, viro, can be created by adding the suffix -in- right before the noun ending -o:

fratino, sister (from frato, brother).
knabino, girl (from knabo, boy).
patrino, mother (from patro, father).
virino, woman (from viro, man).

Cf. English names similarly formed from masculine names, as Pauline, Josephine, Ernestine, Geraldine, etc., also German Königin, queen, from König, king; Löwin, lioness, from Löwe, lion, etc.

Cf. English names made from masculine names, like Pauline, Josephine, Ernestine, Geraldine, etc., also German Königin, queen, from König, king; Löwin, lioness, from Löwe, lion, etc.

Vocabulary.
almenaŭ, at least.
ĉapelo, hat.
ĉielo, sky, heaven.
filo, son.
konstrui, to build.
miri, to wonder.
morgaŭ, tomorrow.
nubo, cloud.
ombrelo, umbrella.
paroli, to talk, to speak.
parko, park.
preskaŭ, almost.
pri, concerning, about.
promeni, to take a walk.
super, above.
timi, to fear, to be afraid (of).
tiu, that (56).
zorga, careful.
EN LA PARKO.

Miaj junaj amiko kaj amikino, kaj ankaŭ ilia patrino, iris hieraŭ al la parko. La infanoj diris al la patrino ke la parko estas agrabla, kaj ke ili volas promeni en ĝi. La knabino parolis al sia frato pri la belaj floroj. Ŝi diris al li ke la floroj velkas, kaj ke la herbo en preskaŭ la tuta parko bezonas pluvon. La knabo diris hodiaŭ al mi ke hieraŭ li kaj lia fratino aŭdis la birdojn en la arboj super siaj kapoj. Li diris ke li miris pri tiuj birdoj, tamen li opinias ke la birdoj baldaŭ konstruos siajn nestojn en tiuj arboj. La infanoj promenis, kaj baldaŭ ili vidis ke grizaj nuboj venas sur la ĉielon, kaj mia juna amikino timis ke pluvos. Ŝi parolis al la patrino pri la nuboj kaj la pluvo, montris al ŝi la grizajn nubojn, kaj diris ke si volas iri al la domo. Ili komencis marŝi al la strato, kaj preskaŭ kuris, ĉar ili ne havis ombrelon. Tra la fenestroj de la domoj oni rigardis ilin, kaj la knabo miris ĉu li kaj liaj patrino kaj fratino amuzas tiujn virojn kaj virinojn. Tamen la patrino diris ke ŝi ne timas ke ŝi amuzos tiujn, sed ke ŝi timas la pluvon. Ŝi kaj la filino volas esti zorgaj pri almenaŭ la novaj ĉapeloj. La filo diris al ŝi ke li ankaŭ estas zorga, sed ke li opinias ke ne pluvos. Baldaŭ la patro venis al ili, kaj portis ombrelojn, ĉar li ankaŭ timis la pluvon. Li miris ĉu la infanoj kaj ilia patrino havas ombrelojn. Baldaŭ pluvis, sed ili estis sekaj, ĉar ili havis la ombrelojn. Morgaŭ ili ne promenos en la parko, sed iros al la urbo.

My young friend and his sister, along with their mom, went to the park yesterday. The kids told their mom that the park is nice and that they want to take a walk there. The girl talked to her brother about the beautiful flowers. She told him that the flowers are wilting and that the grass in almost the entire park needs rain. The boy told me today that yesterday he and his sister heard the birds in the trees above their heads. He said he was curious about those birds, but he thinks that the birds will soon build their nests in those trees. The children walked, and soon they saw gray clouds coming in the sky, and my young friend was afraid it would rain. She talked to her mom about the clouds and the rain, pointed out the gray clouds, and said she wanted to go home. They started walking toward the street and almost ran because they didn’t have an umbrella. People looked at them through the windows of the houses, and the boy wondered if he and his mom and sister were entertaining those men and women. However, the mom said she wasn’t worried about entertaining them, but she was worried about the rain. She and her daughter wanted to be careful with at least their new hats. The son told her that he was also worried, but he thought it wouldn’t rain. Soon, the dad joined them, carrying umbrellas because he was also worried about the rain. He wondered if the kids and their mom had umbrellas. It rained soon after, but they stayed dry because they had the umbrellas. Tomorrow, they won’t walk in the park but will go to the city.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The east wind is dry and the south wind will be too warm. 2. A west wind blew against the weathercock, but the grain needed a south wind. 3 A north wind is blowing and I think that it will soon snow. 4. It (51) will be beautiful weather tomorrow, because a pleasant wind is now blowing. 5. The flowers will wither because those children gathered them. 6. They are talking about that park, but I do not wish to take-a-walk, because there are clouds in (on) the sky. 7. At least we shall take an umbrella, and my brother will hold it over our heads. 8. My sister said "Mother and I are-afraid that it will rain." 9. My young sister will be careful about that new umbrella. 10. I wonder whether she will take-a-walk tomorrow. 11. That park is pleasant and the grass is soft and green. 12. The birds are building their nests now, in those branches above our heads. 13. The sky above us is blue, and a west wind is beginning to blow. 14. I can see that weathercock, on that large house near the park. 15. Mother says that my sister will have a new hat tomorrow. 16. She will be careful of (about) that hat. 17. My father's friend is very careful of his son. 18. One sees that he is not a strong boy.

1. The east wind is dry and the south wind will be too warm. 2. A west wind blew against the weather vane, but the grain needed a south wind. 3. A north wind is blowing, and I think it will soon snow. 4. It will be beautiful weather tomorrow because a pleasant wind is blowing now. 5. The flowers will wither because those kids picked them. 6. They’re talking about that park, but I don’t want to go for a walk because there are clouds in the sky. 7. At least we should take an umbrella, and my brother will hold it over our heads. 8. My sister said, "Mom and I are worried that it will rain." 9. My little sister will be careful with that new umbrella. 10. I wonder if she will go for a walk tomorrow. 11. That park is nice and the grass is soft and green. 12. The birds are building their nests now in those branches above us. 13. The sky above us is blue, and a west wind is starting to blow. 14. I can see that weather vane on that big house near the park. 15. Mom says my sister will have a new hat tomorrow. 16. She will take care of that hat. 17. My dad's friend is very protective of his son. 18. You can tell he’s not a strong boy.

LESSON XIV.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN ĈI TIU.

60. The demonstrative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) meaning "this" is formed by using with tiu (56) the word ĉi, which expresses the general idea of nearness or proximity. (Consequently the literal meaning of ĉi tiu is that one nearby, that one here.) The word ĉi may either precede or follow the pronoun:

60. The demonstrative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) for "this" is created by combining tiu (56) with the word ĉi, which conveys the general sense of nearness or closeness. (Therefore, the literal meaning of ĉi tiu is that one nearby, that one here.) The word ĉi can either come before or after the pronoun:

Ĉi tiu estas la mia, this is mine.
Mi vidis ĉi tiun, I saw this one.
Ĉu vi volas tiujn ĉi? Do you wish these?
Ĉi tiu knabino estas mia fratino, this girl is my sister.
Mi vidis ĉi tiujn ĉapelojn, I saw these hats.
Ĉi tiuj amikoj promenos, these friends will take a walk.

This is mine, this is mine.
I saw this one, I saw this one.
Do you want these? Do you wish these?
This girl is my sister, this girl is my sister.
I saw these hats, I saw these hats.
These friends will go for a walk, these friends will take a walk.

61. The words tiu and ĉi tiu may be used to distinguish between persons or things previously mentioned and just mentioned:

61. The words tiu and ĉi tiu can be used to differentiate between people or things that were mentioned earlier and those that are mentioned now:

Gertrude kaj Mario estas en la parko. Tiu rigardas la florojn, ĉi tiu kolektas ilin.
Gertrude and Mary are in the park. The former (that one) looks at the flowers, the latter (this one) gathers them.

Gertrude and Mary are in the park. Gertrude is looking at the flowers while Mary is picking them.

POSSESSIVE FORM OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN.

62. To express possession, the demonstrative pronouns tiu and ĉi tiu have the special possessive or genitive forms ties, that one's, and ĉi ties, this one's. The use of ties and ĉi ties to mean "the former" and "the latter" is similar to the use of tiu and ĉi tiu shown in 61:

62. To show possession, the demonstrative pronouns tiu and ĉi tiu have special possessive or genitive forms ties, that one's, and ĉi ties, this one's. The use of ties and ĉi ties to refer to "the former" and "the latter" is similar to the use of tiu and ĉi tiu shown in 61:

Mi iris al ties domo, I went to that one's house.
Ĉi ties filoj estas junaj, this person's (this one's) sons are young.
Mi ŝatas ties koloron, sed preferas ĉi tiun floron, I like that one's color, but prefer this flower.
La patro kaj lia amiko parolas pri siaj domoj. Ties estas nova, sed ĉi ties ŝajnas bela, Father and his friend are talking about their houses. The former's is new, but the latter's seems beautiful.

I went to that person's house.
That person's sons are young.
I like that person's color, but I prefer this flower.
Dad and his friend are talking about their houses. The former's is new, but the latter's looks beautiful.

THE SUFFIX -IL-.

63. Names of instruments, tools or utensils may be formed by adding the suffix -il- (followed by the ending -o) to roots whose meaning permits:

63. You can create names for instruments, tools, or utensils by adding the suffix -il- (followed by the ending -o) to roots that make sense for that meaning:

flugilo, wing (from flugi, to fly).
kaptilo, snare, trap (from kapti, to catch).
kudrilo, needle (from kudri, to sew).
montrilo, indicator, (clock) hand (from montri, to point out, show).
tenilo, handle (from teni, to hold).

flugilo, wing (from flugi, to fly).
kaptilo, snare, trap (from kapti, to catch).
kudrilo, needle (from kudri, to sew).
montrilo, indicator, (clock) hand (from montri, to point out, show).
tenilo, handle (from teni, to hold).

The root of a word is that part of it which contains the essential meaning, and to which the verb endings -i, -as, -is, -os, the noun ending -o, the adjective ending -a, etc., are attached, when no suffix intervenes. Thus, vir- is the root of viro and of virino; kur- is the root of kuri, etc.

The root of a word is the part that holds its core meaning, and to which the verb endings -i, -as, -is, -os, the noun ending -o, the adjective ending -a, etc., are added, without any intervening suffixes. So, vir- is the root of viro and virino; kur- is the root of kuri, and so on.

THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENTALITY.

64. The means or instrumentality through which an act is accomplished is expressed by use of the preposition per:

64. The way or method through which an action is carried out is indicated by using the preposition per:

Oni kudras per kudrilo, one sews by means of (with) a needle.
La birdoj flugas per flugiloj, the birds fly by (with) wings.
Li amuzas sin per tiuj bildoj, he amuses himself with (by) those pictures.
Mi trovis ĝin per via helpo, I found it by (through) your help.

One sews with a needle, Oni kudras per kudrilo.
The birds fly with wings, La birdoj flugas per flugiloj.
He entertains himself with those pictures, Li amuzas sin per tiuj bildoj.
I found it with your help, Mi trovis ĝin per via helpo.

Vocabulary.
akra, sharp.
buŝo, mouth.
dekstra, right (not left).
ĉi (see 60).
forko, fork.
helpo, help.
kafo, coffee.
kulero, spoon.
mano, hand.
najbaro, neighbour.
per, by means of (64).
supo, soup.
telero, plate.
terpomo, potato.
ties, that one's (62).
tranĉi, to cut.
tre, very, exceedingly.
viando, meat.
LA MANĜO.

Hieraŭ mi miris ĉu mi havos bonan manĝon en la domo de mia amiko. Sed mi opiniis ke mi havos tre bonan manĝon, ĉar mia amiko ŝatas doni bonajn manĝojn al siaj amikoj. Oni metis tre bonan supon antaŭ mi, kaj mi manĝis tiun per granda kulero. Post la supo mi havis viandon. Ĉi tiun mi tenis per forko, kaj tranĉis per akra tranĉilo. La forko, tranĉilo kaj kulero estas manĝiloj. Mi havis ne nur viandon, sed ankaŭ novajn terpomojn. Mi tranĉis tiujn ĉi per la tranĉilo, sed mi metis ilin en la buŝon per forko. Mi tenis la forkon en la dekstra mano, kaj metis la tranĉilon trans mian teleron. Oni bezonas akran tranĉilon, sed oni ne bezonas tre akran forkon. Post la viando kaj la terpomoj, oni donis al mi freŝajn maturajn ĉerizojn. Ili kuŝis sur granda telero, kaj havis belan koloron. Ilia gusto estis ankaŭ bona. Mi preskaŭ ne diris ke mi ankaŭ havis kafon. Mi parolos morgaŭ al mia amiko pri lia kafo, kaj laŭdos ĝin. Post la manĝo, najbaro de mia amiko venis en ĉi ties domon, kaj ili parolis al mi pri siaj novaj domoj. Per la helpo de sia patro, mia amiko konstruos grandan domon. Lia najbaro volas konstrui belan sed ne tre grandan domon. Ties nova domo estos bela, sed mi opinias ke mi preferos ĉi ties domon. Mia amiko volis doni almenaŭ kafon al sia najbaro, sed li diris ke li ne volas trinki kafon. Tamen li volis persikon. Li tenis tiun en la mano, kaj manĝis tiun.

Yesterday I wondered if I would have a good meal at my friend's house. But I thought I would have a really good meal because my friend likes to give great meals to his friends. They served a really nice soup in front of me, and I ate it with a big spoon. After the soup, I had meat. I held this with a fork and cut it with a sharp knife. The fork, knife, and spoon are utensils. I had not only meat but also new potatoes. I cut those with the knife, but I put them in my mouth with the fork. I held the fork in my right hand and laid the knife across my plate. You need a sharp knife, but you don’t really need a very sharp fork. After the meat and potatoes, they gave me fresh ripe cherries. They were on a large plate and had a beautiful color. Their taste was good too. I almost forgot to mention that I also had coffee. I will talk to my friend tomorrow about his coffee and praise it. After the meal, my friend's neighbor came into their house, and they talked to me about their new homes. With the help of his father, my friend will build a large house. His neighbor wants to build a beautiful but not too big house. That new house will be nice, but I think I will prefer this one. My friend wanted to at least offer coffee to his neighbor, but he said he didn’t want to drink coffee. However, he did want a peach. He held it in his hand and ate it.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The birds have very strong wings on their bodies, but they do not have hands. 2. They will build their nests, and sing about the young birds. 3. Those children were talking to me yesterday about their cat. 4. They said that it likes to catch and eat sparrows. 5. Tomorrow it will hide (itself) behind a tree, and will catch a young sparrow. 6. The children will gather peaches in that-person's garden, and will put them upon a plate. 7. They will shake the whole tree by means of a branch. 8. The sweet fruit above them will fall upon the soft green grass. 9. The children wondered whether the cherries were ripe. 10. They seem almost ripe, and tomorrow the children will pick (gather) them, with the help of their father. 11. It is said (54) that the grain in that-man's field very [much] needs rain. 12. People also think that the flowers will wither, for (because) it did not rain yesterday or today. 13. My careful young friend will carry an umbrella in his hand tomorrow, because he fears the rain. 14. He sees those gray clouds in (on) the sky. 15. He holds the umbrella by its handle. 16. The weathercock is an indicator concerning the weather. 17. One eats meat with a fork, and soup with a spoon. 18. One holds the spoon in the right hand. 19. A knife is sharp, but one does not need a sharp fork. 20. We shall have a very good meal, and also very good coffee.

1. Birds have strong wings on their bodies, but they don’t have hands. 2. They build their nests and sing about their young. 3. Those kids were talking to me yesterday about their cat. 4. They said it likes to catch and eat sparrows. 5. Tomorrow, it will hide behind a tree and catch a young sparrow. 6. The kids will gather peaches in that person's garden and put them on a plate. 7. They will shake the whole tree with a branch. 8. The sweet fruit above them will fall onto the soft green grass. 9. The kids wondered if the cherries were ripe. 10. They seem almost ripe, and tomorrow, the kids will pick them with their dad’s help. 11. It is said that the grain in that man's field really needs rain. 12. People also think the flowers will wilt since it didn’t rain yesterday or today. 13. My careful young friend will carry an umbrella tomorrow because he fears the rain. 14. He sees those gray clouds in the sky. 15. He holds the umbrella by its handle. 16. The weather vane indicates the weather. 17. You eat meat with a fork and soup with a spoon. 18. You hold the spoon in your right hand. 19. A knife is sharp, but you don’t need a sharp fork. 20. We’ll have a great meal and some really good coffee.

LESSON XV.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE.

65. The demonstrative adjective related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu (56) is tia, that kind of, that sort of, such:

65. The demonstrative adjective related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu (56) is tia, that kind of, that sort of, such:

Tia floro estas bela, that kind of a flower is beautiful.
Mi ŝatas tian viandon, I like that sort of meat.
Tiaj najbaroj estas agrablaj, such (that kind of) neighbors are pleasant.
Mi volas aŭdi tiajn birdojn, I wish to hear such birds.

That flower is beautiful, that kind of flower is beautiful.
I like that kind of meat, I like that sort of meat.
Those neighbors are nice, such neighbors are pleasant.
I want to hear those birds, I wish to hear such birds.

ADVERBS DEFINED AND CLASSIFIED.

66. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, another adverb, or phrase. It may express manner, time, degree, negation, etc. Adverbs are either primary, as "now," "almost," or derived, as "glad-ly," "sweet-ly," The Esperanto primary adverbs given in this and in preceding lessons may be classified as follows:

66. An adverb is a word that changes the meaning of a verb, adjective, another adverb, or phrase. It can describe how, when, to what extent, or even express negation. Adverbs can be primary, like "now" and "almost," or derived, like "gladly" and "sweetly." The primary adverbs in Esperanto presented in this and previous lessons can be categorized as follows:

(a) Temporal Adverbs (expressing time).
baldaŭ, soon.
hieraŭ, yesterday.
hodiaŭ, today.
morgaŭ, tomorrow.
nun, now.
tuj, immediately.
(b) Adverbs of Degree.
almenaŭ, at least.
nur, merely.
preskaŭ, almost.
tre, very, much.
(c) Adverbs Expressing Other Ideas.
addition: ankaŭ, also.
interrogation: ĉu, (30).
proximity: ĉi, (60).
emphasis: , even.
affirmation: jes, yes.
negation: ne, not, no, (27).

a. An adverb usually precedes, but may also follow, the word or words which it modifies. It must be so placed as to leave no doubt about which of two words or word-groups it is intended to modify. Thus, mi preskaŭ volis havi tiun clearly means I almost wished to have that; but mi volis preskaŭ havi tiun might mean either "I almost wished to have that," or more probably "I wished almost to have that." An example of permissible variation in the position of adverbs is shown in questions to which an affirmative answer is expected. Such questions may be put in the form of a statement, followed by ĉu ne (instead of having ĉu introduce the sentence, with ne in its normal position):

a. An adverb usually comes before, but can also come after, the word or words it modifies. It needs to be positioned clearly so there’s no confusion about which of the two words or phrases it modifies. For example, mi preskaŭ volis havi tiun clearly means I almost wished to have that; but mi volis preskaŭ havi tiun could mean either "I almost wished to have that," or more likely "I wished almost to have that." An example of acceptable variation in the placement of adverbs is found in questions that expect a yes or no answer. Such questions can be phrased as a statement followed by ĉu ne (instead of starting with ĉu and placing ne in its usual spot):

Li venos, ĉu ne? He will come, will he not?
La vetero estas bela, ĉu ne? The weather is beautiful, is it not?
Vi aŭdis tiun diron, ĉu ne? You heard that remark, did you not?

He’s coming, right? He will come, will he not?
The weather is nice, isn’t it? The weather is beautiful, is it not?
You heard that comment, didn’t you? You heard that remark, did you not?

FORMATION OF OPPOSITES.

67. If the meaning of a word is such that it can have a direct opposite, such opposite may be formed from it by use of the prefix mal-:

67. If a word's meaning allows for a direct opposite, that opposite can be created by adding the prefix mal-:

malalta, low, short (from alta, high, tall).
malamiko, enemy (from amiko, friend).
maldekstra, left (from dekstra, right).
malhelpi, to hinder (from helpi, to help).
maljuna, aged, old (from juna, young).
malnova, old, not new (from nova, new).

malalta, low, short (from alta, high, tall).
malamiko, enemy (from amiko, friend).
maldekstra, left (from dekstra, right).
malhelpi, to hinder (from helpi, to help).
maljuna, aged, old (from juna, young).
malnova, old, not new (from nova, new).

Cf. English malcontent, "discontented," maladroit, "clumsy."

Cf. English malcontent, "discontented," maladroit, "clumsy."

Vocabulary.
dum, during.
, even.
gardi, to guard.
helpi, to help, to aid.
honti, to be ashamed.
kara, dear.
kontenta, satisfied.
kuraĝa, courageous.
nokto, night.
povi, to be able.
preni, to take.
propono, proposal.
respondi, to answer.
ruza, sly, cunning.
ŝteli, to steal.
tia, that kind of (65).
tuj, immediately.
voĉo, voice.
LA RUZA JUNA VIRO.

Ruza juna viro kaj bona maljuna viro iris trans dezerton. Tiu havis nigran ĉevalon, ĉi tiu havis blankan ĉevalon. "Vi gardos niajn ĉevalojn dum la nokto, ĉu ne?" diris la juna viro per dolĉa voĉo al sia amiko, "Ĉar dum la nokto oni ne povos vidi mian nigran ĉevalon, sed malamikoj povos tuj vidi vian blankan ĉevalon. Oni povos ŝteli tian ĉevalon, ĉar vi estas maljuna kaj malforta, kaj ne povos malhelpi malamikojn." Tia propono ne ŝajnis agrabla al la maljuna viro. Li ne estis kontenta, tamen li ne volis perdi sian ĉevalon, ĉar li estis malriĉa. Li diris al si ke li donos sian blankan ĉevalon al la juna viro, kaj prenos ties nigran ĉevalon. Tuj li diris al ĉi tiu "Sed per via helpo mi ne perdos mian ĉevalon: mi donos la mian al vi, kaj prenos vian ĉevalon. La via estas malbela, sed ĝi estas almenaŭ nigra; vi donos ĝin al mi, ĉu ne?" "Jes," respondis la ruza juna viro, kaj li donis sian nigran ĉevalon al tiu, kaj prenis la blankan ĉevalon. "Nun," diris la maljuna viro, "Vi estas kuraĝa kaj forta, kaj vi gardos la ĉevalojn, ĉu ne? Vi povos malhelpi malamikojn per tiu granda akra tranĉilo, kaj oni ne povos ŝteli vian blankan ĉevalon." La ruza juna viro ne hontis. Li respondis "Mia kara amiko, mi nun dormos, ĉar oni ne ŝtelos blankan ĉevalon. Mi povos vidi tian ĉevalon dum la nokto, kaj malhelpi malamikojn. Sed tiu ĉevalo via (that horse of yours) havas la koloron de la nokto, kaj eĉ nun oni povas ŝteli ĝin." La malkontenta maljuna viro diris per kolera voĉo "Ĉu vi ne hontas pri tia propono?" Tamen la ruza juna viro tuj komencis dormi, kaj la maljuna viro gardis la ĉevalojn dum la tuta nokto.

A young man and a wise old man crossed a desert. The young man had a black horse, while the old man had a white horse. "You'll watch our horses during the night, right?" the young man said sweetly to his friend, "Because at night, no one will be able to see my black horse, but enemies will easily spot your white horse. They could steal such a horse since you're old and weak, and you won't be able to stop them." The old man didn't find this suggestion pleasant. He wasn't happy about it, but he didn't want to lose his horse since he was poor. He told himself he would give his white horse to the young man and take his black horse. He immediately said to the young man, "But with your help, I won't lose my horse: I'll give you mine, and you give me yours. Yours may be ugly, but at least it's black; you'll give it to me, won't you?" "Yes," replied the cunning young man, and he gave his black horse to the old man and took the white horse. "Now," said the old man, "You’re brave and strong, and you’ll watch the horses, right? You can stop the enemies with that big sharp knife, and no one will steal your white horse." The cunning young man wasn't ashamed. He replied, "My dear friend, I’ll sleep now because no one will steal a white horse. I can see such a horse at night and prevent any enemies. But that horse of yours is the color of the night, and even now, someone could steal it." The dissatisfied old man said in an angry voice, "Don't you have any shame proposing such a thing?" However, the cunning young man immediately began to sleep, and the old man kept watch over the horses all night.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
(Words to be formed with the prefix mal- are italicised.)

1. Does one eat potatoes and meat with a fork or a spoon? 2. One puts soup into the mouth by means of a spoon. 3. One cuts fruit with a knife, and puts the fruit upon a plate. 4. The coffee was cold, and I was much dissatisfied. 5. My knife was dull, nevertheless I almost immediately cut my (the) left hand. 6. I was ashamed, but I think that the handle of that knife was very short. 7. The grass is wet today, and I fear that we shall not be able to take a walk, even in that small park. 8. I dislike to go-walking upon the hard streets. 9. The courageous young man and his aged friend talked about their enemies. 10. They wished to be careful about their horses. 11. The young man was very sly, and wished to sleep during the night. 12. He said that one can steal a black horse during the dark night. 13. He said that either () he or the old man would guard the horses. 14. The old man answered that he would give to him his [own] white horse. 15. He took that one's black horse. 16. He was ashamed, and was very angry at his faithless friend. 17. But he stayed-awake, and guarded the horses.

1. Do you eat potatoes and meat with a fork or a spoon? 2. You put soup into your mouth with a spoon. 3. You cut fruit with a knife and place the fruit on a plate. 4. The coffee was cold, and I was quite dissatisfied. 5. My knife was dull, yet I almost immediately cut my (the) left hand. 6. I was embarrassed, but I think the handle of that knife was very short. 7. The grass is wet today, and I'm worried that we won't be able to go for a walk, even in that small park. 8. I dislike walking on the hard streets. 9. The brave young man and his aged friend discussed their enemies. 10. They wanted to be careful with their horses. 11. The young man was very cunning and wanted to sleep at night. 12. He said you can steal a black horse in the dark night. 13. He said either he or the old man would watch over the horses. 14. The old man replied that he would give him his [own] white horse. 15. He took the black horse. 16. He was embarrassed and was very angry at his faithless friend. 17. But he stayed awake and guarded the horses.

LESSON XVI.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.

68. The demonstrative adverbs of place related to the pronouns tiu and ĉi tiu are tie, there, in (at) that place, and ĉi tie, here, in (at) this place:

68. The demonstrative adverbs of place associated with the pronouns tiu and ĉi tiu are tie, there, in (at) that place, and ĉi tie, here, in (at) this place:

La telero estas tie, the plate is there (in that place).
La libroj kuŝas ĉi tie, the books lie here (in this place).
Mi trovis vin tie kaj lin tie ĉi, I found you there and him here.
Tie la vetero ŝajnas tre agrabla, there the weather seems very pleasant.

The plate is over there, the plate is there (in that place).
The books are lying right here, the books lie here (in this place).
I found you over there and him right here, I found you there and him here.
The weather seems really nice there, there the weather seems very pleasant.

69. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by tie or ĉi tie, the ending -n is added to the adverb (46), forming tien, thither, there, and ĉi tien, hither, here:

69. If the verb in the sentence indicates movement towards the location marked by tie or ĉi tie, the ending -n is added to the adverb (46), creating tien, thither, there, and ĉi tien, hither, here:

Li iros tien, he will go there (thither).
Mi venis ĉi tien, I came here (hither).
Ni estis tie, kaj venis ĉi tien, we were there and came here (hither).

He will go there. He will go there.
I came here. I came here.
We were there and came here. We were there and came here.

ACCOMPANIMENT.

70. Accompaniment or association is expressed by the preposition kun, with, along with:

70. Accompaniment or association is expressed by the preposition kun, with, along with:

La viro venis kun sia amiko, the man came with his friend.
Mi promenos kun vi, I shall go walking with you.
La knabo kun tiu viro estas lia frato, the boy with that man is his brother.

The man came with his friend, the man came with his friend.
I will go for a walk with you, I shall go walking with you.
The boy with that man is his brother, the boy with that man is his brother.

Kun must not be confused with per (64), which expresses instrumentality, although per may often be translated by English "with." The English preposition "with" may be said to have three rather clearly defined different meanings. In the linguistic history of this word, the original meaning was "against," still shown in fight with, strive with, contend with, withstand, etc. (Cf. German widerstreiten, to strive with, widerhalten, to resist, etc.) Gradually this word "with" usurped the meaning of the original preposition "mid," expressing association or accompaniment (cf. German mit, "with", which it crowded out of the language except in one unimportant compound). The word "by" was also encroaching upon "mid" from another direction, and so "mid's" successor "with" came to be interchangeable with "by" in expressing instrumentality. Thus, English "with" indicates opposition, accompaniment, or instrumentality, for which three senses Esperanto has the three prepositions kontraŭ, kun, and per, respectively.

Kun should not be confused with per (64), which indicates instrumentality, even though "per" is often translated as the English "with." The English preposition "with" has three distinct meanings. In its linguistic history, the original meaning was "against," which is still evident in phrases like fight with, strive with, contend with, withstand, etc. (See German widerstreiten, to strive against, widerhalten, to resist, etc.) Over time, "with" took on the meaning of the original preposition "mid," which expressed association or accompaniment (see German mit, "with," which it replaced in the language except in one minor compound). The word "by" was also taking over "mid" from another angle, so "mid's" successor "with" became interchangeable with "by" when expressing instrumentality. Therefore, the English "with" represents opposition, accompaniment, or instrumentality, for which Esperanto uses three prepositions: kontraŭ, kun, and per, respectively.

THE ADVERB FOR.

71. The adverb for, away, may be used independently, as Li iris for de mi, he went away from me, but it is more frequently used as a prefix to give a sense of departure, loss or somewhat forcible removal:

71. The adverb for, away, can be used on its own, as in Li iris for de mi, he went away from me, but it’s more often used as a prefix to convey a sense of departure, loss, or somewhat forceful removal:

foriri, to go away, to depart.
forkuri, to run away, to escape.
forlasi, to leave alone, to abandon, to desert.
formanĝi, to eat away, to eat up.
forpreni, to take away, to remove.
fortrinki, to drink away, to drink up.

foriri, to go away, to leave.
forkuri, to run away, to escape.
forlasi, to leave alone, to abandon, to desert.
formanĝi, to eat away, to finish eating.
forpreni, to take away, to remove.
fortrinki, to drink away, to finish drinking.

Cf. the prefix for- in English "forfend," to keep away, to avert, "forbid," to exclude from, to command against, "forbear," to refrain from, etc.

Cf. the prefix for- in English "forfend," to keep away, to avert, "forbid," to exclude from, to command against, "forbear," to refrain from, etc.

THE MEANING OF POVI.

72. The verb povi, to be able, is used to translate English can, which is defective, that is, does not occur in all of the forms a verb may have:

72. The verb povi, meaning to be able, is used to translate the English word can. However, it is defective, meaning it doesn't appear in all the forms that a verb can have:

Mi povas paroli, I am able to talk, I can talk.
Mi povis paroli, I was able to talk, I could talk.
Mi povos paroli, I shall be able to talk, ———.
Mi volas povi paroli, I wish to be able to talk, ———.

I can talk, I am able to talk, I can talk.
I could talk, I was able to talk, I could talk.
I will be able to talk, I shall be able to talk, ———.
I want to be able to talk, I wish to be able to talk, ———.

Vocabulary.
el, out of, out.
ĉirkaŭ, around, roundabout.
for, away (71).
frua, early.
glavo, sword.
horo, hour.
kun, with (70).
lasi, to leave.
peli, to drive, to chase.
poŝo, pocket.
rajdi, to ride.
rapidi, to hasten.
resti, to remain, to stay.
saĝa, wise.
tie, there (68).
voki, to call.
MALAMIKOJ EN LA DEZERTO.

Juna viro kaj lia saĝa patro volis iri trans la dezerton, kun siaj amikoj. La amikoj estis fortaj, kaj la juna viro estis tre kuraĝa. Ili restis en malgranda urbo dum la nokto, kaj forrajdis kun tiuj amikoj. La patro kaj la filo opiniis ke la amikoj kun ili povos helpi per siaj akraj glavoj. Ili opiniis ke ili povos forpeli la malamikojn. Eĉ en la dezerto oni trovas malamikojn. Tiaj malamikoj forprenas la monon de bonaj viroj. La juna viro estis kontenta, ĉar li estis kun la amikoj. La maljuna viro estis kontenta ĉar li estis kun sia filo. Baldaŭ la nokto venis. Estis tre malluma tie en la dezerto, kaj ili preskaŭ ne povis vidi. Dum la fruaj horoj de la nokto la patro aŭdis voĉojn, kaj preskaŭ tuj li vidis la malamikojn. La ruzaj malbonaj viroj rapidis tien, kaj vokis la maljunan viron. La malkuraĝaj amikoj de la patro kaj filo nek restis tie, nek helpis forpeli la malamikojn. Ili tuj forkuris. La malamikoj staris ĉirkaŭ la patro, kaj forpuŝis lin de lia ĉevalo. La filo volis malhelpi ilin, sed li ne povis. Li povis nur resti kun la patro, kaj gardi lin tie kontraŭ la glavoj de la malamikoj. Baldaŭ la malamikoj komencis forpreni la monon el la poŝoj de la saĝa maljuna viro. La kolera filo diris per maldolĉa (bitter) voĉo "Ĉu vi ne hontas? Ĉu vi lasos al ni nek la ĉevalojn nek nian monon?" Sed la malamikoj respondis "Ne, ni lasos al vi nek la ĉevalojn nek la monon. Ni ne estas malsaĝaj." Post tiu diro ili tuj forrapidis, kaj prenis kun si la ĉevalojn.

A young man and his wise father wanted to cross the desert with their friends. The friends were strong, and the young man was very brave. They stayed in a small town overnight and rode out with those friends. The father and son believed that their friends would be able to help them with their sharp swords. They thought they could drive away the enemies. Even in the desert, enemies can be found. Such enemies take the money from good men. The young man was happy because he was with his friends. The old man was pleased because he was with his son. Soon, night fell. It was very dark in the desert, and they could hardly see. During the early hours of the night, the father heard voices and soon saw the enemies. The cunning bad men rushed in and called out to the old man. The cowardly friends of the father and son neither stayed nor helped drive away the enemies. They ran away immediately. The enemies surrounded the father and pushed him off his horse. The son wanted to stop them, but he couldn’t. He could only stay with his father and protect him against the enemies’ swords. Soon, the enemies started taking the money out of the pockets of the wise old man. The angry son said in a bitter voice, "Don’t you have any shame? Will you leave us neither the horses nor our money?" But the enemies replied, "No, we will leave you neither the horses nor the money. We are not foolish." After that, they immediately ran off with the horses.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The foolish friends of the young man and his aged father did not stay with them. 2. They did not help them with their swords, but ran away at once (tuj), and were not ashamed. 3. The old man heard disagreeable voices behind him, and soon he saw the enemy. 4. The enemy called them, and hastened there (69). 5. Those sly bad men took the money out of the pockets of the courageous young man. 6. They stood around him, and also around his father. 7. The father and son could not even guard their horses. 8. The enemy did not leave (to) these their horses, but took both the horses and the money. 9. Soon the enemy rode away, during the late hours of the night. 10. The father and son were angry and dissatisfied. 11. They said "We fear and dislike such men." 12. The father said "By the help of our neighbors we can (povos) find those bad men, and drive them away, out of the desert." 13. The son replied, "Dear Father, such a proposal seems good, and I will help with my long sharp sword. 14. But we are now in the desert, and the road to the city is long. 15. We cannot ride thither, but we can walk thither. 16. Can you not hasten, with (per) my help?" 17. The wise old man answered, "Yes, my son, with such help I can walk thither."

1. The foolish friends of the young man and his elderly father did not stick around. 2. They didn’t help with their swords but ran away immediately, without any shame. 3. The old man heard unpleasant voices behind him and soon spotted the enemy. 4. The enemy called to them and hurried over there. 5. Those sneaky bad guys stole the money from the brave young man's pockets. 6. They surrounded him and his father. 7. The father and son couldn’t even protect their horses. 8. The enemy didn’t leave them their horses but took both the horses and the money. 9. Soon the enemy rode away late at night. 10. The father and son were angry and dissatisfied. 11. They said, "We fear and dislike such people." 12. The father said, "With the help of our neighbors, we can find those bad men and drive them out of the desert." 13. The son replied, "Dear Father, that sounds like a good plan, and I will assist with my long, sharp sword. 14. But we are in the desert now, and the road to the city is long. 15. We can’t ride there, but we can walk. 16. Can’t you hurry with my help?" 17. The wise old man answered, "Yes, my son, with such help I can walk there."

LESSON XVII.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.

73. The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu is tiam, then, at that time:

73. The demonstrative temporal adverb connected to the demonstrative pronoun tiu is tiam, then, at that time:

Tiam li rajdos al la urbo, then he will ride to the city.
Nun ili estas saĝaj, sed tiam ili estis malsaĝaj, now they are wise, but at that time they were foolish.

He will ride to the city, then he will ride to the city.
Now they are wise, but back then they were foolish, now they are wise, but at that time they were foolish.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

74. An adjective may have three degrees, positive, comparative and superlative. English has various ways of forming the comparative and superlative degrees (as by the suffixes -er, -est, the adverbs more, most, and irregular methods as in good, better, best, etc.). Esperanto has only one method, using the adverbs pli, more, and plej, most:

74. An adjective can have three degrees: positive, comparative, and superlative. English has different ways of forming the comparative and superlative degrees (like using the suffixes -er and -est, the adverbs more and most, and irregular forms like good, better, best, etc.). Esperanto uses only one method, employing the adverbs pli for more and plej for most:

Positive.Comparative.Superlative.
bela, beautifulpli bela, more beautifulplej bela, most beautiful.
bona, goodpli bona, betterplej bona, best.
malbona, badpli malbona, worseplej malbona, worst.
saĝa, wisepli saĝa, wiserplej saĝa, wisest.

75. The preposition el is used with words expressing the group or class out of which a superlative is selected and mentioned:

75. The preposition el is used with words that refer to the group or category from which a superlative is chosen and identified:

Li estas la plej juna el tiuj, he is the youngest of (out of) those.
Vi estas la plej feliĉa el ni, you are the happiest of us.
Tiu estis la plej ruza el la viroj, that one was the craftiest of the men.

He is the youngest of the bunch, he is the youngest of (out of) those.
You are the happiest among us, you are the happiest of us.
That one was the cleverest of the men, that one was the craftiest of the men.

MANNER AND CHARACTERISTIC.

76. The actions or feelings which accompany an act or state, or the characteristic which permanently accompanies a person or thing, may be expressed by a substantive with the preposition kun:

76. The actions or feelings that go along with an act or state, or the trait that permanently belongs to a person or thing, can be expressed using a noun with the preposition kun:

Li prenis ĝin kun la plej granda zorgo, he took it with the greatest care.
Mi aŭdis lin kun intereso kaj plezuro, I heard him with interest and pleasure.
Ŝi estas virino kun bona gusto, she is a woman with (of) good taste.
Mi havas ĉevalon kun forta korpo, I have a horse with a strong body.

He took it with the utmost care, he took it with the greatest care.
I listened to him with interest and enjoyment, I heard him with interest and pleasure.
She is a woman with great taste, she is a woman with (of) good taste.
I have a horse with a strong build, I have a horse with a strong body.

Sometimes the manner of an action may be expressed by the instrument of it, expressed by the preposition per with a substantive modified by an adjective: Li kantis per dolĉa voĉo, he sang with (by means of) a sweet voice. Vi puŝis min per forta mano, you pushed me with a strong hand.

Sometimes the way an action is performed can be shown by the tool used, indicated by the preposition per followed by a noun modified by an adjective: Li kantis per dolĉa voĉo, he sang with a sweet voice. Vi puŝis min per forta mano, you pushed me with a strong hand.

DIRI, PAROLI AND RAKONTI.

77. The verbs diri, to say, paroli, to talk, to speak, and rakonti, to relate, having in common the general idea of speech or expression, must not be confused in use:

77. The verbs diri, to say, paroli, to talk, to speak, and rakonti, to relate, share the common theme of speech or expression, but should not be used interchangeably:

Mi diris al vi ke pluvas, I said to (told) you that it was raining.
Mi diris ĝin al vi, I said it to you (I told you).
Mi parolis al vi pri ĝi, I talked (spoke) to you about it.
Mi rakontis ĝin al vi, I related (told) it to you.

I told you it was raining, I said to you that it was raining.
I told you, I said it to you.
I talked to you about it, I spoke to you about it.
I told you about it, I related it to you.

Vocabulary.
ami, to love.
ekster, outside (of).
Frederiko, Frederick.
gratuli, to congratulate.
intereso, interest.
letero, letter.
plej, most (74).
plezuro, pleasure.
pli, more (74).
plumo, pen.
rakonti, to relate (77).
reĝo, king.
servisto, servant.
skribi, to write.
tiam, then (73).
zorgo, care.
FREDERIKO GRANDA KAJ LA JUNA SERVISTO.

Hieraŭ mi legis interesan libron pri Frederiko Granda (the Great). En ĝi oni rakontas ke la reĝo kun plezuro legis aŭ skribis per sia plumo, dum malfruaj horoj de la nokto. Agrabla juna knabo, la plej juna el la servistoj, tiam restis ekster la pordo. Ĉar la reĝo legis plej interesan novan libron, li ne opiniis ke la horo estas malfrua. Li vokis sian malgrandan serviston, sed la knabo, nek venis nek respondis. La reĝo iris tien, kaj trovis la knabon ekster la pordo. Li vidis ke la knabo dormas sur malalta seĝo. Tiam Frederiko Granda ne estis kolera, sed hontis ĉar li vokis la infanon. La reĝo Frederiko vidis leteron en la poŝo de la knabo. Tuj li prenis la leteron el lia poŝo, kaj rigardis ĝin. Ĝi estis letero al la servisto, de lia patrino. Ŝi ne estis riĉa virino, ŝi ŝajnis esti tre malriĉa. En ĉi tiu letero la patrino diris per la plumo ke ŝi amas la filon. Ŝi dankis lin ĉar li skribis al ŝi longan leteron. Ŝi ankaŭ dankis lin ĉar li donis al ŝi monon. La reĝo volis esti tre bona al tia filo. Kun la plej granda zorgo li metis monon el sia poŝo kun la letero kaj tiam lasis la leteron en ties poŝo. Tiam li formarŝis al sia ĉambro, kaj vokis la malgrandan serviston. La knabo tuj aŭdis, kaj rapidis tra la pordo. Li kuris trans la ĉambron, kaj staris antaŭ la reĝo. "Ĉu vi dormis?" diris Frederiko Granda. "Jes, mi timas ke mi preskaŭ dormis," respondis la knabo, "kaj mi tre hontas." Tiam li metis la manon en la poŝon, kaj trovis la monon. Li ŝajnis pli malfeliĉa kaj diris kun granda timo "Malamiko metis ĉi tiun monon en mian poŝon! Oni opinios ke mi ŝtelis ĝin! Oni malamos min, kaj forpelos min!" Frederiko respondis, "Ne, mi donis ĝin al vi, ĉar mi amas bonajn knabojn. Mi gratulas vian patrinon, ĉar ŝi havas tian filon."

Yesterday, I read an interesting book about Frederick the Great. It tells how the king enjoyed reading or writing with his pen late into the night. A pleasant young boy, the youngest of the servants, stayed outside the door at that time. Since the king was engrossed in a compelling new book, he didn't realize how late it was. He called for his little servant, but the boy neither came nor answered. The king went over to see and found the boy sleeping on a low chair outside the door. Frederick the Great wasn't angry; he felt ashamed for having called the child. He noticed a letter in the boy's pocket. He immediately took the letter out and looked at it. It was a letter to the servant from his mother. She wasn't a wealthy woman; she appeared to be very poor. In this letter, the mother wrote that she loved her son. She thanked him for writing her a long letter. She also thanked him for sending her money. The king wanted to be very kind to such a son. With great care, he put some money from his pocket with the letter and then left the letter in the boy's pocket. Then he marched back to his room and called for the little servant. The boy heard right away and hurried through the door. He ran across the room and stood before the king. "Did you fall asleep?" Frederick the Great asked. "Yes, I'm afraid I almost did," replied the boy, "and I’m very embarrassed." Then he put his hand in his pocket and found the money. He looked more distressed and said with great fear, "An enemy put this money in my pocket! People will think I stole it! They'll hate me and send me away!" Frederick replied, "No, I gave it to you because I love good boys. I congratulate your mother for having such a son."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. An interesting story is related (54) about Frederick the Great. 2. His youngest servant stayed outside of the door. 3. The king called him, and he hastened thither and stood before him. 4. Yesterday he did not hear the king. 5. The king called him, but he did not answer. 6. The king thought that the boy had gone away with the older servants, and he was angry. 7. He left his book on the table, and went to the door. 8. Then he saw that the little boy was sleeping there. 9. He looked at him with greater interest, and saw a letter in his pocket. 10. The letter was from the boy's mother. 11. He had written a letter to her, with his pen, and had given (to) her money, because she was poor. 12. He wrote longer letters with pleasure, because he was a most faithful son. 13. The king congratulated the mother of the boy, concerning such a son. 14. (The) king Frederick wished to be kinder (pli bona) to the boy. 15. He placed his book upon the table, near his sword, and talked to the little servant. 16. Then the older servants came, and stood around the king. 17. They walked with great care, and the younger servant did not hear them. 18. They loved the little boy, and wished to help him.

1. An interesting story is told about Frederick the Great. 2. His youngest servant was waiting outside the door. 3. The king called him, and he rushed over to stand before him. 4. Yesterday, he didn’t hear the king. 5. The king called him, but he didn’t answer. 6. The king thought the boy had gone off with the older servants, and he was angry. 7. He left his book on the table and went to the door. 8. Then he saw that the little boy was sleeping there. 9. He looked at him with more interest and noticed a letter in his pocket. 10. The letter was from the boy's mother. 11. He had written a letter to her with his pen and had given her money because she was poor. 12. He enjoyed writing longer letters because he was a very loyal son. 13. The king praised the boy's mother for having such a son. 14. King Frederick wanted to be kinder to the boy. 15. He placed his book on the table next to his sword and talked to the little servant. 16. Then the older servants came and stood around the king. 17. They moved quietly, and the younger servant didn’t hear them. 18. They cared for the little boy and wanted to help him.

LESSON XVIII.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.

78. The demonstrative adverb of motive or reason, related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu, is tial, therefore, for that reason, so:

78. The demonstrative adverb of motive or reason, related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu, is tial, therefore, for that reason, so:

Tial la servisto foriris, therefore the servant went away.
Tial mi gratulis lin, for that reason I congratulated him.
Tial oni forpelis lin, so they drove him away.

So the servant left, therefore the servant went away.
That's why I congratulated him, for that reason I congratulated him.
So they kicked him out, so they drove him away.

DERIVATION OF ADVERBS.

79. Adverbs may be derived from roots whose meaning permits, by addition of the adverb-ending -e, as feliĉe, happily, kolere, angrily. The comparison of adverbs is similar to that of adjectives:

79. Adverbs can be created from roots that allow it by adding the adverb-ending -e, like feliĉe, happily, kolere, angrily. The way we compare adverbs is similar to how we compare adjectives:

Positive.Comparative.Superlative.
saĝe, wiselypli saĝe, more wiselyplej saĝe, most wisely
bone, wellpli bone, betterplej bone, best
malbone, badlypli malbone, worseplej malbone, worst
ruze, slylypli ruze, more slylyplej ruze, most slyly
MALPLI AND MALPLEJ.

80. The opposites (67) of pli and plej are malpli, less, and malplej, least. Their use is similar to that of pli and plej. (These adverbs may also modify verbs):

80. The opposites (67) of pli and plej are malpli, less, and malplej, least. Their use is similar to that of pli and plej. (These adverbs may also modify verbs):

Li estas malpli kuraĝa, he is less courageous.
Tiuj estis malplej akraj, those were least sharp.
La vento blovis malpli forte, the wind blew less strongly.
Li skribis malplej zorge, he wrote least carefully.
Mi malpli timas ilin, I fear them less.
Vi malplej bezonos helpon, you will need help least.

He is less courageous, he is less courageous.
Those were the least sharp, those were least sharp.
The wind blew less strongly, the wind blew less strongly.
He wrote the least carefully, he wrote least carefully.
I fear them less, I fear them less.
You will need help the least, you will need help least.

COMPARISON OF WORDS EXPRESSING QUANTITY.

81. Since in their precise sense the words pli, malpli, plej, malplej, express degree, a quantitative meaning is given by multe, much, in the desired degree of comparison:

81. In their exact meaning, the words pli, malpli, plej, malplej, represent degree, while multe, or much, indicates a quantitative meaning in the intended degree of comparison:

multe, muchpli multe, more (in amount)plej multe, most
 malpli multe, less     "malplej multe, least
malmulte, littlepli malmulte, less     "plej malmulte, least
COMPARISONS CONTAINING OL.

82. In a comparison made by the use of pli or malpli, the case used after ol, than, must indicate clearly the sense intended:

82. When comparing using pli or malpli, the case that follows ol, than, must clearly convey the intended meaning:

Mi amas ilin pli multe ol ŝin, I love them more than (I love) her.
Mi amas ilin pli multe ol ŝi, I love them more than she (loves them).
Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabo, you helped the man less than the boy (helped him).
Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabon, you helped the man less than (you helped) the boy.

I love them more than her, I love them more than (I love) her.
I love them more than she does, I love them more than she (loves them).
You helped the man less than the boy did, you helped the man less than the boy (helped him).
You helped the man less than you helped the boy, you helped the man less than (you helped) the boy.

CAUSAL CLAUSES.

83. A clause giving a cause or reason is introduced by ĉar, because, for, or by the combination tial ke, for this reason that, because, for:

83. A clause that provides a cause or reason is introduced by ĉar, because, for, or by the combination tial ke, for this reason that, because, for:

Mi venis frue, ĉar mi volis vidi vin, I came early, for I wished to see you.
La floroj velkis tial, ke ne pluvis, the flowers wilted for this reason, that it did not rain.

I came early because I wanted to see you, I came early, for I wished to see you.
The flowers wilted because it didn't rain, the flowers wilted for this reason, that it did not rain.

Vocabulary.
anstataŭ, instead of.
aprilo, April.
aŭgusto, August.
jaro, year.
junio, June.
julio, July.
majo, May.
marto, March.
monato, month.
multa, much (multaj, many).
ofta, frequent (ofte, often).
ol, than (82).
printempo, spring (season).
tago, day.
sezono, season.
somero, summer.
tial, therefore (78).
vintro, winter.
PRI LA SEZONOJ.

La vintro estas la malplej agrabla sezono el la tuta jaro. Neĝas tre multe, kaj tial oni nur malofte promenas, ĉar la stratoj estas tro malsekaj. Oni marŝas kun granda zorgo, kaj malrapide (slowly), tial ke oni ne volas fali kaj preskaŭ rompi la kolon. Oni zorge gardas sin tiam kontraŭ la malvarmaj nordaj ventoj. La manojn oni metas en la poŝojn, sed la vizaĝon oni ne povas bone gardi. Mi ne ŝatas resti ekster la domo dum tia vetero. Mi multe preferas sidi en varma luma ĉambro, kaj skribi leterojn per bona plumo. La monatoj de la printempo estas marto, aprilo kaj majo. La bela printempo ŝajnas pli agrabla ol la vintro. Ĝiaj tagoj estas pli longaj kaj pli varmaj, ĝiaj ventoj blovas malpli forte. En ĉi tiu sezono la kampoj kaj arboj frue komencas montri plej belajn kolorojn. La birdoj konstruas siajn nestojn, kaj dolĉe kantas. Oni povas promeni sur la mola herbo, anstataŭ sur malsekaj malagrablaj stratoj. Pluvas pli multe en aprilo, tamen post la pluvo la herbo ŝajnas pli verda, kaj la nuboj baldaŭ forflugas de la blua ĉielo. Dum majo oni trovas violojn, kaj en junio oni vidas tre multajn rozojn. Sed la plej agrabla el la sezonoj estas la somero. Anstataŭ malvarmaj ventoj la somero havas la plej belan veteron, kun suda aŭ okcidenta ventoj. La longaj tagoj estas varmaj, sed la noktoj estas tute agrablaj. Tiam oni havas pli bonajn fruktojn ol dum la printempo. La monatoj de la somero estas junio, julio kaj aŭgusto. Mi plej ŝatas junion. Ĉu vi ŝatas ĝin pli multe ol mi? Ĉu vi ŝatas aŭguston pli multe ol julion?

Winter is the least pleasant season of the whole year. It snows a lot, and because of that, people rarely go out for walks since the streets are too wet. You have to walk with great care and slowly because you don't want to fall and nearly break your neck. You carefully protect yourself against the cold northern winds. You keep your hands in your pockets, but you can't protect your face well. I don't like to stay outside in such weather. I much prefer to sit in a warm, bright room and write letters with a nice pen. The months of spring are March, April, and May. Spring feels much more pleasant than winter. Its days are longer and warmer, and its winds blow less harshly. During this season, the fields and trees start to show their most beautiful colors early. Birds build their nests and sing sweetly. You can walk on the soft grass instead of the wet, unpleasant streets. It rains more in April, but after the rain, the grass looks greener, and the clouds soon drift away from the blue sky. In May, you find violets, and in June, you see many roses. But the most pleasant of the seasons is summer. Instead of cold winds, summer has the most beautiful weather, with southern or western breezes. The long days are warm, but the nights are completely pleasant. At that time, the fruits are better than in spring. The months of summer are June, July, and August. I like June the most. Do you like it more than I do? Do you like August more than July?

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. I read a most interesting book about Frederick the Great. 2. It relates that he often stayed-awake and read with great interest during the later hours of the night. 3. His youngest servant was a small boy. 4. The king loved this boy more than [he loved] the older servants. 5. The winter is a less pleasant season than the spring, but the summer is more pleasant than that [season]. 6. During March the east winds blow most strongly, and shake the trees very much. 7. In April one needs his umbrella, for (the reason that) there are often clouds in the sky and it rains a great deal (very much). 8. The streets are very wet, but the water does not seem to wash them. 9. In May one begins to find sweet violets, and the birds in the trees above our heads sing very sweetly. 10. In June the most beautiful roses are seen (54). 11. July and August are the warmest months of the whole year. 12. The days are longer than the nights, and the weathercock shows west and south winds, instead of those disagreeable north and east winds. 13. One stays outside [of] the house then with greater pleasure, and goes walking in the parks. 14. I think that I like the summer better than you [do]. 15. Therefore I praise the summer more than you [do]. 16. However, I praise you more than [I praise] your younger brother. 17. He is less wise than you.

1. I read a really interesting book about Frederick the Great. 2. It mentions that he often stayed up late reading with great interest. 3. His youngest servant was a little boy. 4. The king liked this boy more than the older servants. 5. Winter is less enjoyable than spring, but summer is more enjoyable than winter. 6. In March, the east winds blow the hardest and shake the trees a lot. 7. In April, you'll need your umbrella because there are often clouds in the sky, and it rains quite a bit. 8. The streets are very wet, but the water doesn't seem to clean them. 9. In May, you start to see sweet violets, and the birds in the trees above us sing beautifully. 10. In June, the most beautiful roses bloom. 11. July and August are the hottest months of the year. 12. The days are longer than the nights, and the weather vane shows west and south winds instead of those unpleasant north and east winds. 13. People enjoy staying outside the house more and walking in the parks. 14. I think I like summer more than you do. 15. That's why I praise summer more than you do. 16. However, I praise you more than your younger brother. 17. He is not as wise as you.

LESSON XIX.
JU AND DES IN COMPARISONS.

84. In clauses expressing a comparison between two objects, acts or states, the adverbial use of English "the ... the ..." (meaning "by how much ... by that much ...") is rendered by the adverbs ju and des, respectively:

84. In clauses that compare two objects, actions, or states, the English adverbial phrase "the ... the ..." (meaning "by how much ... by that much ...") is expressed using the adverbs ju and des, respectively:

Ju pli bona li estas, des pli feliĉa li estos, the better he is, the happier he will be.
Ju pli ofte mi rigardas, des pli mi volas rigardi, the oftener I look, the more I wish to look.
Ju pli bele la luno brilas, des pli oni ŝatas la nokton, the more beautifully the moon shines, the more one likes the night.
Ju malpli pluvas, des pli la floroj velkas, the less it rains, the more the flowers wither.
Ju malpli multe vi helpas, des malpli multe mi laŭdos vin, the less you help, the less I shall praise you.
Ĉar vi helpis, mi des pli multe laŭdos vin, because you helped, I shall praise you the (that much) more.

The better he is, the happier he will be, the better he is, the happier he will be.
The more often I look, the more I want to look, the oftener I look, the more I wish to look.
The more beautifully the moon shines, the more people enjoy the night, the more beautifully the moon shines, the more one likes the night.
The less it rains, the more the flowers wilt, the less it rains, the more the flowers wither.
The less you help, the less I will praise you, the less you help, the less I shall praise you.
Since you helped, I will praise you that much more, because you helped, I shall praise you the (that much) more.

Cf. Shakespeare, As You Like It, V, II, 49, By so much the more shall I tomorrow be at the height of heart-heaviness, by how much I shall think my brother happy in having what he wishes for.

Cf. Shakespeare, As You Like It, V, II, 49, The more I think about it, the more heartbroken I'll feel tomorrow, knowing my brother is happy getting what he wants.

THE PREPOSITION INTER.

85. In English, the preposition "between" is used in reference to two persons or things, and "among" in reference to three or more. As the difference in meaning is not essential, Esperanto has but the one preposition inter to express both between and among:

85. In English, the preposition "between" is used for two people or things, while "among" is used for three or more. Since the difference in meaning isn't crucial, Esperanto uses just one preposition, "inter," to cover both between and among:

Li sidas inter vi kaj mi, he is sitting between you and me.
Li sidas inter siaj amikoj, he is sitting among his friends.
La monato majo estas inter aprilo kaj junio, the month of May is between April and June.
Inter tiuj libroj estas tre interesa libro, among those books there is a very interesting book.

He's sitting between you and me, he is sitting between you and me.
He's sitting among his friends, he is sitting among his friends.
The month of May is between April and June, the month of May is between April and June.
Among those books, there's a really interesting book, among those books there is a very interesting book.

THE PREPOSITION PRO.

86. Cause or reason may be expressed not only by an adverb (78) or a clause (83), but also by use of the preposition pro, because of, on account of, for the sake of, for. It directs the thought away from the complement toward the action, feeling or state caused by it, or done in its interest or behalf:

86. Cause or reason can be shown not only by an adverb (78) or a clause (83), but also by using the preposition pro, because of, on account of, for the sake of, for. It shifts the focus away from the complement and toward the action, feeling, or state that it causes, or that is done in its interest or for its benefit:

La floroj velkas pro la seka vetero, the flowers wilt because of the dry weather.
Mi skribis la leteron pro vi, I wrote the letter for you (for your sake).
Pro tiuj nuboj mi timas ke pluvos, on account of those clouds I fear that it will rain.
Oni ŝatas ĉerizojn pro la dolĉa gusto, people like cherries because of the sweet taste.

The flowers are wilting because of the dry weather, the flowers wilt because of the dry weather.
I wrote the letter for you, I wrote the letter for you (for your sake).
Because of those clouds, I'm afraid it will rain, on account of those clouds I fear that it will rain.
People like cherries because they're sweet, people like cherries because of the sweet taste.

PREPOSITIONS WITH ADVERBS AND OTHER PREPOSITIONS.

87. Prepositions may be used with adverbs or with prepositional phrases when the meaning permits:

87. You can use prepositions with adverbs or prepositional phrases when the meaning allows:

La kato kuris el sub la tablo, the cat ran out-from under the table.
Li venos el tie, he will come out of there.
De nun li estos zorga, from now he will be careful.
Li staris dekstre de la vojo, he stood on the right of the road.
Mi iros for de ĉi tie, I shall go away from here.

The cat ran out from under the table.
He will come out of there.
From now on, he will be careful.
He stood on the right side of the road.
I will go away from here.

Vocabulary.
aŭtuno, autumn, fall.
decembro, December.
des, (see 84).
februaro, February.
glacio, ice.
inter, between, among (85).
januaro, January.
ju, (see 84).
kovri, to cover.
neĝo, snow.
novembro, November.
nuda, bare, naked.
oktobro, October.
pro, because of (86).
rikolti, to harvest.
rivero, river.
septembro, September.
tero, ground, earth.
LA AŬTUNO KAJ LA VINTRO.

La sezonoj de la jaro estas la vintro, la printempo, la somero, kaj la aŭtuno. La aŭtuno estas inter la somero kaj la vintro. Ĝiaj monatoj estas septembro, oktobro kaj novembro. En septembro oni povas kolekti maturajn fruktojn. Tiam ankaŭ oni rikoltas la flavan grenon de la kampoj. Dum ĉi tiu monato kaj dum oktobro la folioj sur la branĉoj komencas esti ruĝaj kaj flavaj, anstataŭ verdaj. La herbo velkas, kaj bruna tapiŝo ŝajnas kovri la teron. Baldaŭ la folioj falas al la tero, kaj en novembro la arboj estas tute nudaj. Pli aŭ malpli frue neĝas. La glacio ofte kovras la akvon en la riveroj, kaj restas sur la stratoj kaj la vojoj. La mola blanka neĝo kovras la teron, kaj kuŝas sur la branĉoj de la arboj. Tiam, pro la fortaj ventoj, ĝi falas de la branĉoj al la tero. La birdoj frue lasas tian veteron, kaj flugas de ĉi tie al pli sudaj kampoj kaj arboj. Ili ne povas resti, pro la malvarmaj tagoj kaj noktoj. Ili malŝatas la neĝon kaj la glacion pli multe ol ni. Ju pli multe neĝas; des pli malofte ni volas promeni. Ni preferas resti en la domo, anstataŭ ekster ĝi. Ju pli ni rigardas la nudajn branĉojn de la arboj, des pli malagrabla ŝajnas la vintro. Tamen la junaj infanoj tre ŝatas tian veteron, kaj ju pli neĝas, kaj ju pli forte la norda vento blovas, des malpli ili estas kontentaj en la domo. Ili volas kuri sur la neĝo, ĉirkaŭ la arboj kaj inter ili, kun siaj junaj amikoj. Ili povas bone amuzi sin per la neĝo. La monatoj de la vintro estas decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Ĝi estas la plej malvarma sezono.

The seasons of the year are winter, spring, summer, and autumn. Autumn is between summer and winter. Its months are September, October, and November. In September, you can gather ripe fruits. That's also when the golden grain from the fields is harvested. During this month and in October, the leaves on the branches start turning red and yellow instead of green. The grass withers, and a brown carpet seems to cover the ground. Soon the leaves fall to the ground, and by November, the trees are completely bare. Sooner or later, it snows. Ice often covers the water in the rivers and stays on the streets and roads. The soft white snow blankets the ground and rests on the branches of the trees. Then, because of strong winds, it falls from the branches to the ground. The birds leave this kind of weather early and fly to southern fields and trees. They can’t stay because of the cold days and nights. They dislike snow and ice more than we do. The more it snows, the less we want to go out. We prefer to stay indoors instead of outside. The more we look at the bare branches of the trees, the more unpleasant winter seems. However, young children really enjoy such weather, and the more it snows and the harder the north wind blows, the less they are satisfied to stay inside. They want to run in the snow, around the trees and between them, with their young friends. They can have a lot of fun in the snow. The winter months are December, January, and February. It is the coldest season.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. September, October and November are the months of autumn. 2. In these months, people harvest the yellow grain and gather various fruits. 3. The leaves on the trees around us begin to have red and yellow colors. 4. They begin to fall from the branches and lie upon the ground. 5. The more strongly the cold north wind blows through the branches, the sooner the leaves fall from there. 6. They lie under the bare trees, with the brown grass. 7. The sooner it snows, the sooner the ground will seem to have a white carpet. 8. The snow will completely (tute) cover the grass during the months of the winter. 9. These months are December, January and February. 10. From that time (de tiam) the ice and snow will cover the roads, and altogether (tute) hide them. 11. There will often be ice on the water of the river. 12. We like this season of the year more than March, April and May. 13. We like it even more than the summer. 14. The months of the latter (62) are June, July and August. 15. The summer is the warmest season of the entire year. 16. Therefore we often say that the summer is the pleasantest season. 17. Because of its many pleasures, the summer is dear to me. 18. It is between the spring and the autumn.

1. September, October, and November are the autumn months. 2. During these months, people harvest golden grains and gather various fruits. 3. The leaves on the trees around us start to turn red and yellow. 4. They begin to fall from the branches and rest on the ground. 5. The harder the cold north wind blows through the branches, the sooner the leaves drop. 6. They lie beneath the bare trees, next to the brown grass. 7. The sooner it snows, the sooner the ground will look like it has a white carpet. 8. The snow will completely cover the grass during the winter months. 9. Those months are December, January, and February. 10. From that point on, the ice and snow will cover the roads, completely hiding them. 11. There is often ice on the river. 12. We prefer this season over March, April, and May. 13. We even like it more than summer. 14. The summer months are June, July, and August. 15. Summer is the warmest season of the entire year. 16. That's why we often say that summer is the most enjoyable season. 17. Because of its many pleasures, summer is special to me. 18. It falls between spring and autumn.

LESSON XX.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE.

88. The demonstrative adverb of manner and degree, related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu, is tiel, in that (this) manner, in such a way, thus, so. Like English "thus," "so," tiel may modify adjectives and other adverbs, by indicating degree:

88. The demonstrative adverb of manner and degree, related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu, is tiel, in that (this) manner, in such a way, thus, so. Like the English words "thus" and "so," tiel can modify adjectives and other adverbs by indicating degree:

Ĉu oni tiel helpas amikon? Does one help a friend in that (this) way?
Mi ĝin skribis tiel, I wrote it thus (in such a way).
La vetero estas tiel bela, the weather is so beautiful.
Tiel mallonge li parolis, thus briefly he spoke.
Mi trovis tiel belan floron, I found such a beautiful flower.
Li prenis tiel multe, he took that much (so much).

Is that how you help a friend? Does one help a friend in that way?
I wrote it like this, I wrote it this way.
The weather is so nice, the weather is so beautiful.
He spoke so briefly, thus briefly he spoke.
I found such a pretty flower, I found such a beautiful flower.
He took that much, he took that much (so much).

PREPOSITIONS EXPRESSING TIME-RELATIONS.

89. The relations which prepositions express may be of various kinds. As in English, a certain number of prepositions primarily expressing place may also express time-relations. Such prepositions are antaŭ, ĉirkaŭ, de, en, ĝis, inter, post, and je (whose use in other than time-relations will be explained later):

89. The relationships that prepositions indicate can be of different types. Just like in English, some prepositions that mainly express location can also denote time relationships. These prepositions are antaŭ, ĉirkaŭ, de, en, ĝis, inter, post, and je (their use in contexts other than time will be explained later):

Mi foriros ĉirkaŭ junio, I shall depart about June.
De tiu horo mi estis via amiko, from that hour I was your friend.
Li ne parolis al mi de tiu semajno, he did not speak to me since from) that week.
En la tuta monato ne neĝis, it did not snow in (at any time within) the entire month.
Mi dormis ĝis malfrua horo, I slept until (up to) a late hour.
Ĝis nun li ne vidis vin, until now he did not see you.
Inter marto kaj junio mi iros tien, between March and June I shall go there.
Je malfrua horo li foriris, at a late hour he went away.
Mi iros tien je dimanĉo, I shall go there on Sunday.
Je tiu horo li vokis min, at that hour he called me.
Ŝi ne restis tie post julio, she did not stay there after July.
Post ne longe mi vokos vin, soon (after not long) I shall call you.

Mi foriros ĉirkaŭ junio, I will leave around June.
De tiu horo mi estis via amiko, from that moment I was your friend.
Li ne parolis al mi de tiu semajno, he hasn't talked to me since that week.
En la tuta monato ne neĝis, it didn't snow at all during the entire month.
Mi dormis ĝis malfrua horo, I slept in until late.
Ĝis nun li ne vidis vin, he hasn't seen you until now.
Inter marto kaj junio mi iros tien, I'll go there between March and June.
Je malfrua horo li foriris, he left at a late hour.
Mi iros tien je dimanĉo, I will go there on Sunday.
Je tiu horo li vokis min, he called me at that time.
Ŝi ne restis tie post julio, she didn't stay there after July.
Post ne longe mi vokos vin, I'll call you soon.

90. When a definite date or point in time is expressed, antaŭ means "before." When used with an expression of an amount of time, it is to be translated by "ago" following the expression (not by "before" preceding it):

90. When a specific date or time is mentioned, antaŭ means "before." When it's used with a mention of an amount of time, it should be translated as "ago" after the expression (not as "before" before it):

Antaŭ dimanĉo mi foriros, before Sunday I shall go away.
Mi vidis lin antaŭ tiu horo, I saw him before that hour.
Li skribos ĝin antaŭ la nova jaro, he will write it before New Year.
Antaŭ multaj jaroj mi trovis ĝin, many years ago I found it.
Mi rompis ĝin antaŭ longa tempo, I broke it a long time ago.
Antaŭ tre longe vi legis tiun libron, you read that book very long ago.
Li venis antaŭ ne longe, he came recently (not long ago).
Antaŭ malmultaj jaroj li forkuris, a few years ago he escaped.

Before Sunday, I’m leaving, before Sunday I shall go away.
I saw him before that time, I saw him before that hour.
He will write it before New Year, he will write it before New Year.
Many years ago, I found it, many years ago I found it.
I broke it a long time ago, I broke it a long time ago.
You read that book a long time ago, you read that book very long ago.
He came not long ago, he came recently (not long ago).
A few years ago, he escaped, a few years ago he escaped.

As already shown, kun expresses accompaniment, per expresses instrumentality, pro expresses cause, kontraŭ expresses opposition, anstataŭ expresses substitution, sur, apud, sub, etc., express place, dum expresses time, etc.

As already shown, kun indicates accompaniment, per indicates instrumentality, pro indicates cause, kontraŭ indicates opposition, anstataŭ indicates substitution, sur, apud, sub, etc., indicate place, dum indicates time, etc.

Lexicon.
dimanĉo, Sunday.
energia, energetic.
frosto, frost.
je, at, on (89).
kota, muddy.
labori, to work, to labor.
laca, tired, weary.
lundo, Monday.
mardo, Tuesday.
mateno, morning.
promeno, walk, promenade.
rakonto, story, narrative.
ripozi, to rest, to repose.
semajno, week.
tempo, time.
tiel, thus, so (88)
tro, too, too much.
vespero, evening.
EN SEPTEMBRO.

Antaŭ multaj jaroj ni preferis resti en nia malgranda domo trans la rivero, dum la tuta aŭtuno. Sed nun ni restas tie nur ĝis oktobro. De aŭgusto ĝis oktobro la vetero estas tre agrabla tie, sed baldaŭ post tiu monato la fortaj ventoj blovas, kaj la folioj komencas fali. La frosto kovras la teron, kaj baldaŭ neĝas tre ofte. Ju pli nudaj estas la arboj, des pli malbelaj ili ŝajnas. La vetero antaŭ novembro ne estas tro malvarma, sed post tiu monato ni opinias ke la urbo estas pli agrabla ol domo inter kampoj kaj arboj, trans larĝa rivero. La frosto, neĝo kaj glacio kovras la teron en decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Sed la monato septembro ŝajnas tre agrabla, pro siaj multaj plezuroj. La viroj laboras energie en la kampoj, de la mateno ĝis la vespero. Ili rikoltas la flavan grenon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. Sed je dimanĉo oni ne laboras tiel energie, sed dormas ĝis malfrua horo, tial ke je tiu tago oni ripozas. Je lundo oni komencas labori tre frue, kaj je mardo oni ankaŭ laboras energie. En septembro la vojoj ne estas tro kotaj, kaj longaj promenoj estas ofte agrablaj. Ju pli ofte mi promenas kun miaj amikoj, des pli multe mi ŝatas tiajn promenojn. Sed hieraŭ mi estis tre laca post la promeno, tial mi ripozis sur granda mola seĝo. Antaŭ ne longe la patro promenis kun mi, sed ni ne estis tiel lacaj je tiu tago. Ŝajnas ke ju pli ofte ni promenas, des malpli lacaj ni estas post la promenoj. Post ne longe mi estos pli forta.

Many years ago, we preferred to stay in our little house across the river all autumn. But now we only stay there until October. From August to October, the weather is really nice, but soon after that, the strong winds start blowing, and the leaves begin to fall. The frost covers the ground, and soon it snows quite often. The more bare the trees are, the uglier they seem. The weather before November isn’t too cold, but after that month, we feel that the city is more pleasant than a house among fields and trees across a wide river. Frost, snow, and ice cover the ground in December, January, and February. However, September seems very nice because of its many pleasures. The men work hard in the fields from morning until evening. They harvest the golden grain and gather the fruits. But on Sundays, they don’t work that hard; they sleep in late since it’s a day for rest. On Mondays, they start working very early, and on Tuesdays, they work hard too. In September, the roads aren’t too muddy, and long walks are often enjoyable. The more often I walk with my friends, the more I enjoy those walks. But yesterday, I was very tired after the walk, so I rested in a large, soft chair. Not long ago, my dad walked with me, but we weren’t that tired that day. It seems that the more often we walk, the less tired we are afterward. Soon, I will be stronger.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Many years ago we had a small house across the river. 2. We did not remain there during the entire year, but only in the warmer months of the summer. 3. Often we stayed until September or even until October. 4. My younger brothers and sisters amused themselves very well there from (the) morning until (the) evening. 5. They amused themselves among the flowers and trees, or went from there into the large fields. 6. Here the men work energetically, and harvest the ripe yellow grain. 7. Only on Sunday do they rest, because on that day one does not work. 8. Between August and November the men work more than in the winter. 9. In December and after that month they rest, for (83) from that time the frost, ice and snow cover the ground. 10. Because of the snow on the ground, long walks are not pleasant in the winter. 11. Recently (90) we went walking in the park across the river, but we were so tired after that walk! 12. The longer the walk is, the sooner one wishes to rest. 13. On Monday it rained, so (78) we read stories and wrote letters, in a pleasant light room in our house. 14. Before evening, however, the sun shone, and the streets were not so muddy. 15. On Tuesday these streets were almost dry, and soon the roads near the river and between the fields will also be dry. 16. A few years ago those roads were very good.

1. Many years ago, we had a small house across the river. 2. We didn't stay there all year round, but only during the warmer summer months. 3. Often, we stayed until September or even October. 4. My younger siblings had a great time there from morning until evening. 5. They played among the flowers and trees, or ventured into the large fields. 6. Here, the men worked hard and harvested the ripe yellow grain. 7. They only rested on Sundays because that's when no one works. 8. Between August and November, the men worked more than during winter. 9. In December and afterward, they rested because, at that time, frost, ice, and snow cover the ground. 10. Due to the snow, long walks aren't enjoyable in the winter. 11. Recently, we went for a walk in the park across the river, but we were so tired afterward! 12. The longer the walk, the sooner you want to rest. 13. On Monday, it rained, so we read stories and wrote letters in a cozy, well-lit room in our house. 14. Before evening, though, the sun shined, and the streets weren't so muddy. 15. By Tuesday, those streets were almost dry, and soon the roads near the river and between the fields will dry up too. 16. A few years ago, those roads were in great condition.

LESSON XXI.
THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME.

91. Duration of time and a date or point in time may be expressed not only by use of the prepositions dum, during, and je, at, on, but also (as in English) without the use of any preposition. When no preposition is used, the word or words indicating time are put in the accusative case:

91. A duration of time and a specific date or point in time can be expressed not only with the prepositions dum, during, and je, at, on, but also (like in English) without any preposition. When no preposition is used, the word or words indicating time are placed in the accusative case:

Li restis tie la tutan semajnon (dum la tuta semajno), he stayed there the whole week (during the whole week).
Ŝi estis feliĉa longan tempon (dum longa tempo), she was happy a long time (during a long time; for a long time).
Ni rajdos tagon kaj nokton (dum tago kaj nokto), we shall ride a day and a night (during a day and a night; for a day and a night).
Mi venis dimanĉon (je dimanĉo), I came Sunday (on Sunday).
Tiun horon (je tiu horo), li forkuris, that hour (at that hour) he escaped.

He stayed there the whole week, he stayed there the whole week.
She was happy for a long time, she was happy for a long time.
We're going to ride for a day and a night, we'll ride for a day and a night.
I came on Sunday, I came on Sunday.
At that hour, he escaped, at that hour he escaped.

92. Although generally preferable, an accusative construction must be carefully placed, or avoided altogether, if confusion with other accusatives (expressing direction of motion, direct object, etc.) might result:

92. While generally better, an accusative construction needs to be positioned carefully or completely avoided if it might lead to confusion with other accusatives (like those indicating direction of motion, direct objects, etc.):

Mi volas iri Bostonon je lundo, I wish to go to Boston on Monday.
Mi volas iri al Bostono lundon, I wish to go to Boston Monday.
Lundon mi volas iri Bostonon, Monday I wish to go to Boston.

I want to go to Boston on Monday, I wish to go to Boston on Monday.
I want to go to Boston Monday, I wish to go to Boston Monday.
Monday I want to go to Boston, Monday I wish to go to Boston.

ADVERBS AND THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME.

93. An accusative of time, as well as a temporal adverb, may further define or be defined by another expression of time:

93. An accusative of time, along with a temporal adverb, can either further define or be defined by another expression of time:

Li venis longan tempon antaŭ tiu horo, he came a long time before that hour.
Jaron post jaro ili restis tie, year after year they stayed there.
hodiaŭ matene, this morning.
hodiaŭ vespere, this evening.
hodiaŭ nokte, tonight.
hieraŭ vespere, last evening.
hieraŭ nokte, last night.
dimanĉon matene, Sunday morning.
lundon vespere, Monday evening.
mardon nokte, Tuesday night.

He came a long time before that hour.
Year after year they stayed there.
This morning.
This evening.
Tonight.
Last evening.
Last night.
Sunday morning.
Monday evening.
Tuesday night.

94. An accusative of time does not necessarily imply that the act or state mentioned occurs oftener than the instance cited. An adverb from the same root usually gives an idea of frequency or repetition:

94. An accusative of time doesn’t necessarily mean that the act or state mentioned happens more often than the example given. An adverb from the same root typically conveys a sense of frequency or repetition:

Li iros al ilia domo dimanĉon, he will go to their house Sunday.
Li iras al ilia domo dimanĉe, he goes to their house Sundays.
Li laboris tagon kaj nokton, he worked a day and a night.
Li laboras tage kaj nokte, he works day and night (by day and by night).

He will go to their house on Sunday.
He goes to their house on Sundays.
He worked for a day and a night.
He works day and night (by day and by night).

THE PREPOSITION POR.

95. The object or purpose with reference to which an act is performed or a condition exists is expressed by the preposition por, for. It directs the thought toward its complement, contrasting thus with pro (86):

95. The object or purpose for which an action is taken or a condition is present is indicated by the preposition por, for. It focuses the thought toward its complement, contrasting with pro (86):

Mi havas libron por vi, I have a book for you.
Mi ne havas la tempon por tiel longa promeno, I have not the time for so long a (such a long) walk.
Ili faris ĝin por via plezuro, they did it for your pleasure.

I have a book for you, I have a book for you.
I don't have time for such a long walk, I have not the time for so long a (such a long) walk.
They did it for your enjoyment, they did it for your pleasure.

Vocabulary.
brila, brilliant.
Dio, God.
dividi, to divide.
fari, to make.
forgesi, to forget.
ĝojo, joy.
konstanta, constant.
kvieta, quiet, calm.
lando, land, country.
merkredo, Wednesday.
mezo, middle.
mondo, world.
paci, to be at peace.
por, for (95).
plori, to weep.
preta, ready.
ridi, to laugh.
riproĉi, to reproach.
LA SEZONOJ KAJ LA MONDO.

Antaŭ tre longa tempo Dio faris la mondon. Li vidis ke la floroj havas belajn kolorojn, ke la arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. Tiam li vokis la sezonojn kaj diris "Belan mondon mi faris por vi. Ĉu vi gardos ĝin tage kaj nokte, kaj estos tre zorgaj pri ĝi?" La sezonoj respondis "Jes," kaj ridis pro ĝojo. Mallongan tempon ili ŝajnis esti tre feliĉaj inter la arboj kaj floroj de la nova mondo. Sed ne multajn semajnojn ili tiel zorge gardis la mondon. Ili komencis malpaci (quarrel) inter si, de la mateno ĝis la vespero, kaj ofte forgesis la arbojn kaj florojn. Ju pli ili malpacis, des malpli zorge ili gardis la mondon. La malkonstanta printempo ne ŝatis la kvietan vintron, kaj ploris pri la malvarma neĝo. La varma brila somero diris ke la aŭtuno estas tro malbrila. La laca aŭtuno volis ripozi, kaj riproĉis la malkonstantan printempon pri ĉi ties kota vetero. Pli kaj pli multe ili malpacis, kaj post ne longe ili tute ne restis amikoj. Tiam la aŭtuno diris "Mi ne povas pli longan tempon labori kun vi pro la mondo. Niaj gustoj estas tro diversaj. Tial hodiaŭ matene ni dividos la mondon inter ni." La vintro respondis "Bone! Mi estas preta," kaj la somero kaj la printempo ridis pro ĝojo. Tiun tagon ili dividis la mondon inter si. La vintro konstruis sian domon en la plej nordaj kaj sudaj landoj. Tie la frosto, neĝo kaj glacio kovras la tutan landon, dum la tuta jaro. La brila energia somero prenis por si la mezon de la mondo. Tial la vetero tie estas plej varma kaj brila. La aŭtuno kaj la printempo prenis por si la landojn inter la vintro kaj la somero. Tial la vetero estas nek tro varma nek tro malvarma en ĉi tiuj landoj. Tiam la sezonoj rakontis al Dio ke ili tiel dividis la mondon inter si.

A long time ago, God created the world. He saw that the flowers had beautiful colors and that the trees were tall and green. Then He called the seasons and said, "I’ve made a beautiful world for you. Will you take care of it day and night, and be very diligent about it?" The seasons replied, "Yes," and they laughed with joy. For a short time, they seemed very happy among the trees and flowers of the new world. But it wasn’t many weeks before they had stopped caring for the world so diligently. They began to quarrel among themselves, from morning until evening, often forgetting the trees and flowers. The more they fought, the less they cared for the world. The fickle spring didn’t like the quiet winter and cried about the cold snow. The warm, bright summer said that autumn was too dull. The tired autumn wanted to rest and blamed the fickle spring for its muddy weather. More and more, they quarreled, and before long, they weren’t friends at all. Then autumn said, "I can’t work with you any longer for the world. Our tastes are too different. So this morning, we will divide the world between us." Winter replied, "Fine! I’m ready," and summer and spring laughed with joy. That day, they divided the world among themselves. Winter built its home in the northern and southern lands. There, frost, snow, and ice cover the entire land all year round. The bright, energetic summer took for itself the middle of the world. That's why the weather there is the warmest and brightest. Autumn and spring took the lands between winter and summer. That's why the weather in those lands is neither too hot nor too cold. Then the seasons told God that they had divided the world among themselves.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Tuesday my brother heard an interesting story, and Wednesday evening after a pleasant walk he related it to me. 2. The story is, that many years ago God made the beautiful new world, and gave it to the seasons. 3. They laughed for joy, and said that they would guard it well. 4. They were ready for pleasure, and also were willing (volis) to work energetically for-the-sake-of the new young world. 5. Almost a year they were happy, but these seasons were too diverse, and could not long remain friends. 6. The brilliant summer wept and reproached the tired autumn. 7. The autumn preferred to rest, and disliked the muddy weather of the inconstant spring. 8. The quiet winter concealed itself beneath the frost and soft white snow, and wished to sleep. 9. The longer they kept the world among them, the more they quarreled. 10. Soon the autumn made the proposition, "We will divide the world." 11. Immediately that morning the seasons divided the world among themselves. 12. The northern and southern lands now belong to the winter, and the middle of the world belongs to the summer. 13. The spring and autumn took for themselves those lands between the winter and summer.

1. On Tuesday, my brother heard an interesting story, and on Wednesday evening, after a nice walk, he shared it with me. 2. The story is that many years ago, God created the beautiful new world and handed it over to the seasons. 3. They laughed with joy and said they would take good care of it. 4. They were ready for fun and also willing to work hard for the sake of the new young world. 5. They were happy for almost a year, but the seasons were too different and couldn’t stay friends for long. 6. The bright summer cried and blamed the tired autumn. 7. The autumn preferred to rest and didn’t like the muddy weather of the unpredictable spring. 8. The quiet winter hid under the frost and soft white snow and wanted to sleep. 9. The longer they kept the world together, the more they fought. 10. Soon, the autumn suggested, “Let’s divide the world.” 11. That very morning, the seasons split the world among themselves. 12. The northern and southern lands now belong to winter, and the middle of the world belongs to summer. 13. Spring and autumn took the lands in between winter and summer.

LESSON XXII.
CLAUSES EXPRESSING DURATION OF TIME.

96. The time during which an act takes place or a condition exists may be expressed not only by an adverb or accusative of time (91), or by use of the preposition dum, but also by a clause introduced by dum:

96. The duration of an action or the existence of a condition can be indicated not just by an adverb or accusative of time (91), or by using the preposition dum, but also by a clause that begins with dum:

Li venis dum vi forestis, he came while (during-the-time-that) you were away.
Dum la sezonoj malpacis, ili forgesis pri la mondo, while the seasons quarreled, they forgot about the world.
Ni ridas pro ĝojo dum neĝas, we laugh for joy while it is snowing.

He came while you were gone.
While the seasons were at odds, they forgot about the world.
We laugh with joy while it's snowing.

CLAUSES EXPRESSING ANTICIPATION.

97. A clause expressing an action or condition as preceding or anticipating that of the main verb is introduced by antaŭ ol:

97. A phrase that shows an action or situation happening before or in anticipation of the main verb is introduced by before:

Mi foriros antaŭ ol vi venos, I shall depart before you (will) come.
Antaŭ ol vi riproĉis lin, li ne ploris, before you reproached him, he did not weep.
Vi ploris antaŭ ol vi ridis, you wept before (sooner than) you laughed.

I’ll leave before you get here, I shall depart before you (will) come.
He didn’t cry until you blamed him, before you reproached him, he did not weep.
You cried before you laughed, you wept before (sooner than) you laughed.

THE INFINITIVE WITH ANSTATAŬ, POR, ANTAŬ OL.

98. An infinitive may be substantively used with anstataŭ to express substitution, with por to express purpose (Cf. Old English "But what went ye out for to see," Matt. xi, 8), and with antaŭ ol to express anticipation. It is usually translated by the English infinitive in -ing:

98. An infinitive can be used as a noun with anstataŭ to show substitution, with por to indicate purpose (See Old English "But what did you go out to see," Matt. xi, 8), and with antaŭ ol to express anticipation. It's typically translated into English as an infinitive in the -ing form:

Anstataŭ resti li foriris, instead of staying he went away.
Vi malhelpas anstataŭ helpi min, you hinder instead of helping me.
Ni venis por helpi vin, we came to help (in order to help) you.
Mi estas preta por iri merkredon, I am ready to go (for going) Wednesday.
Li havos tro multe por fari, he will have too much to do.
Mi laboros antaŭ ol ripozi, I shall work before resting.
Antaŭ ol foriri, li dankis min, before going away, he thanked me.
Dio faris la mondon antaŭ ol doni ĝin al la sezonoj, God made the world before giving it to the seasons.

Instead of staying, he left, instead of staying he went away.
You hinder instead of helping me, you hinder instead of helping me.
We came to help you, we came to help (in order to help) you.
I am ready to go on Wednesday, I am ready to go (for going) Wednesday.
He will have too much to do, he will have too much to do.
I will work before resting, I shall work before resting.
Before leaving, he thanked me, before going away, he thanked me.
God made the world before giving it to the seasons, God made the world before giving it to the seasons.

Substantive is the general name for nouns and pronouns, that is, for words which indicate persons, things, etc., and may be used as subject or object of a verb, complement of a preposition, etc.

Substantive is the general term for nouns and pronouns, meaning words that refer to people, things, and so on, and can be used as the subject or object of a verb, or as a complement of a preposition, etc.

The infinitive may be used with antaŭ ol if its subject is the same as the subject of the main verb. Otherwise the construction explained in 97 must be used.

The infinitive can be used with antaŭ ol if its subject matches the subject of the main verb. If not, the construction explained in 97 must be used.

THE EXPRESSION OF A PART OF THE WHOLE.

99. After nouns indicating a quantity or portion of some indefinite whole, the substantive expressing that indefinite whole is preceded by the preposition da, of:

99. After nouns indicating a quantity or part of an indefinite whole, the noun representing that indefinite whole is preceded by the preposition da, of:

Estas skatolo da ĉerizoj tie, there is a box of cherries there.
Mi trovis grandan sakon da mono, I found a large bag of money.
Li havas teleron da viando, he has a plate of meat.
Post horoj da ĝojo ofte venas horoj da malĝojo, after hours of joy there often come hours of sorrow.

There's a box of cherries there, there is a box of cherries there.
I found a big bag of money, I found a large bag of money.
He has a plate of meat, he has a plate of meat.
After hours of joy, there often come hours of sadness, after hours of joy there often come hours of sorrow.

100. The preposition da must not be used if a quantity or portion of a definite or limited whole is expressed. If the word indicating the whole is limited by la, it is thereby made definite:

100. The preposition da shouldn't be used when expressing a quantity or portion of a definite or limited whole. If the word that indicates the whole is limited by la, it becomes definite:

Telero de la maturaj pomoj, a plate of the ripe apples.
Sako de la bona kafo, a sack of the good coffee.

Platejo de la maturaj pomoj, a plate of the ripe apples.
Sako de la bona kafo, a sack of the good coffee.

Vocabulary.
Aleksandro, Alexander.
barelo, barrel.
bruo, noise.
da, of (99).
demandi, to inquire, to ask.
Diogeno, Diogenes.
greka, Greek.
kelkaj, several, some.
kvankam, although.
ĉifono, rag.
koni, to be acquainted with.
laŭta, loud.
lito, bed.
loĝi, to dwell, to reside.
nombro, number (quantity).
pura, clean.
sufiĉa, sufficient, enough.
veki, to wake.
viziti, to visit.
vesto, garment, clothes.
DIOGENO KAJ ALEKSANDRO GRANDA.

Antaŭ multaj jaroj saĝa greka viro, Diogeno, loĝis en granda urbo. Li opiniis ke ju pli malmulte oni bezonas, des pli feliĉa oni estas. Por montri al la mondo ke li ne bezonas multe, kaj ke tial li havas sufiĉe por esti feliĉa, li loĝis en granda malnova barelo, anstataŭ havi domon. Anstataŭ kuŝi nokte sur lito aŭ almenaŭ sur mola tapiŝo, li eĉ dormis en tiu barelo. Oni multe parolis pri Diogeno en la urbo, ne nur ĉar li tiel loĝis, sed ankaŭ pro liaj saĝaj diroj. Post kelke da tempo (some time) la reĝo Aleksandro Granda venis tien por viziti la urbon. Dum li estis tie li aŭdis pri Diogeno, kaj demandis pri li. "Ĉu li loĝas en la urbo?" Aleksandro diris. "Kvankam vi ne konas lin, mi opinias ke mi volas vidi tian viron." Oni respondis "Diogeno estas saĝa viro, sed anstataŭ loĝi en domo, li preferas sidi la tutan tempon en malnova barelo. Anstataŭ porti (wearing) purajn vestojn, li portas nur malpurajn ĉifonojn, ĉar li opinias ke ju pli malmulte li bezonas, des pli feliĉa li estos." Aleksandro diris "Antaŭ ol foriri de via lando mi vizitos tiun viron." Antaŭ ol li foriris de la urbo, Aleksandro iris kun nombro da amikoj por viziti Diogenon, kaj trovis lin en lia barelo. "Ĉu tiu viro volas paroli al mi?" demandis Diogeno per laŭta voĉo. Aleksandro Granda respondis "Mi estas la reĝo Aleksandro, kaj mi volas koni vin. Mi vidas ke kvankam vi estas saĝa vi estas tre malriĉa. Ĉu vi ne volas kelkajn novajn vestojn anstataŭ tiuj malpuraj ĉifonoj?" Diogeno tuj diris "Antaŭ ol vi venis kaj staris inter mi kaj la suno, ĉi tiu tre varme brilis sur min. Ĉu vi venis por fari bruon kaj por veki min?" Aleksandro ridis kaj diris "Mi vidas ke vi havas sufiĉe por esti feliĉa. Tial mi estas preta por foriri."

Many years ago, a wise Greek man, Diogenes, lived in a big city. He believed that the less a person needs, the happier they are. To show the world that he didn't need much and that this was enough for his happiness, he lived in a large old barrel instead of having a house. Instead of sleeping on a bed or at least on a soft rug, he even slept in that barrel. People talked a lot about Diogenes in the city, not just because of how he lived, but also because of his wise sayings. After some time, King Alexander the Great came to visit the city. While he was there, he heard about Diogenes and asked about him. "Does he live in the city?" Alexander said. "Even though you don't know him, I think I want to see such a man." Someone replied, "Diogenes is a wise man, but instead of living in a house, he prefers to sit all the time in an old barrel. Instead of wearing clean clothes, he only wears dirty rags because he believes that the less he needs, the happier he will be." Alexander said, "Before I leave your country, I will visit this man." Before he left the city, Alexander went with a number of friends to visit Diogenes and found him in his barrel. "Does this man want to talk to me?" Diogenes called out loudly. Alexander the Great responded, "I am King Alexander, and I want to meet you. I see that although you are wise, you are very poor. Don't you want some new clothes instead of those dirty rags?" Diogenes immediately replied, "Before you came and stood between me and the sun, it was shining down on me very warmly. Did you come to make noise and wake me up?" Alexander laughed and said, "I see you have enough to be happy. That's why I am ready to leave."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Diogenes was a wise man who dwelt in a Greek city, many years ago. 2. In order to show to the inconstant world that one does not need much in order to be happy, he did not have even a house or a bed. 3. He stayed day and night in a big barrel, instead of residing in a house. 4. He preferred to wear old rags, instead of good clean clothes. 5. He said "The less one needs, the happier he will be." 6. While Alexander the Great was visiting that city, people talked to him about Diogenes. 7. They asked "Are you acquainted-with that wise man?" 8. Soon the king went with a number of his friends to that-man's big barrel, in the middle of the city. 9. Diogenes was asleep, but the noise of the loud voices waked him, and he said angrily "You are standing between me and the sun! Will you not go away at once?" 10. Although several of the men laughed, Alexander said "We did not come to quarrel with you. 11. I see that you have enough to be happy, so instead of talking and making a noise we shall leave (go away from) you at once." 12. Before Diogenes could answer, Alexander had quietly walked away.

1. Diogenes was a wise man who lived in a Greek city a long time ago. 2. To show the inconsistent world that you don’t need much to be happy, he didn’t even have a house or a bed. 3. He spent day and night in a large barrel instead of living in a house. 4. He preferred to wear old rags instead of nice clean clothes. 5. He said, "The less you need, the happier you’ll be." 6. When Alexander the Great visited that city, people talked to him about Diogenes. 7. They asked, "Do you know that wise man?" 8. Soon the king went with a group of his friends to Diogenes’ big barrel in the middle of the city. 9. Diogenes was sleeping, but the noise of their loud voices woke him, and he said angrily, "You’re blocking my sunlight! Can you please move?" 10. Although some of the men laughed, Alexander said, "We didn’t come to argue with you. 11. I see that you have enough to be happy, so instead of talking and causing a commotion, we’ll leave you alone right away." 12. Before Diogenes could respond, Alexander quietly walked away.

LESSON XXIII.
ADVERBS EXPRESSING A PART OF THE WHOLE.

101. After adverbs used to indicate a quantity or portion of some indefinite whole, as well as after nouns of such meaning (99), the substantive expressing the indefinite whole is preceded by the preposition da:

101. After adverbs that indicate a quantity or part of an indefinite whole, as well as after nouns with that meaning (99), the noun expressing the indefinite whole is preceded by the preposition da:

Multe da bruo, much (a quantity of) noise.
Tiel malmulte da tempo, so little (such a small quantity of) time.
Kelke da pomoj, some (an indefinite number of) apples.

A lot of noise, much (a quantity of) noise.
So little time, so little (such a small quantity of) time.
Some apples, some (an indefinite number of) apples.

102. Verbs may be modified by an adverb and prepositional phrase containing da:

102. Verbs can be modified by an adverb and a prepositional phrase that includes da:

Li trinkis malmulte da akvo, he drank little (not much) water.
Estas multe da sablo en la dezerto, there is much sand in the desert.
Ju pli neĝas, des pli multe da neĝo kuŝas sur la vojoj, the more it snows, the more snow lies on the roads.

He drank a little water.
There's a lot of sand in the desert.
The more it snows, the more snow accumulates on the roads.

A prepositional phrase containing da, whether following a noun or an adverb, is sometimes called a partitive construction.

A prepositional phrase with da, whether it comes after a noun or an adverb, is sometimes called a partitive construction.

103. It is evident from the above examples that an adverb followed by da has a somewhat collective sense, indicating a general sum, mass, or portion of the whole, without distinction of particulars. An adjective of quantitative meaning, on the other hand, usually indicates consideration of the individuals composing the sum or mass named:

103. From the examples above, it's clear that an adverb followed by da has a collective sense, representing a general sum, mass, or portion of the whole without getting into specifics. An adjective with a quantitative meaning, however, typically highlights the individual elements that make up the sum or mass being referred to:

En urbo oni havas multe da bruo, in a city one has much noise.
Ni aŭdis multajn bruojn, we heard many (different) noises.
Tie oni havas multe da plezuro, there one has much pleasure.
Oni havas multajn plezurojn tie, people have many (different) pleasures there.

A city is very noisy, in a city one has much noise.
We heard a lot of sounds, we heard many (different) noises.
There is a lot of enjoyment, there one has much pleasure.
People have many kinds of fun there, people have many (different) pleasures there.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.

104. The demonstrative adverb of quantity related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu is tiom, that (this) much, that many, that quantity, so much, etc.:—

104. The demonstrative adverb of quantity related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu is tiom, that much, that many, that quantity, so much, etc.:—

Mi donis tiom da mono al vi, I gave that much (that amount of) money to you.
Mi aĉetis tiom da viando, I bought that much meat.
Tiom de la libroj mi legis, that many of the books I read.

I gave that much money to you, I gave that much (that amount of) money to you.
I bought that much meat, I bought that much meat.
I read that many books, that many of the books I read.

RESULT CLAUSES.

105. A clause of result (also called a consecutive clause) expresses an action or condition as due to, or resulting from, something indicated in the main sentence, as "he is so strong that he can do it," "I had so much pleasure that I laughed heartily." In Esperanto a result clause is introduced by ke, preceded (directly or in the main sentence) by an adverb or adjective of manner, degree, or quantity:

105. A result clause (also known as a consecutive clause) shows an action or condition as being caused by something mentioned in the main sentence, like "he is so strong that he can do it" or "I enjoyed it so much that I laughed heartily." In Esperanto, a result clause is introduced by ke, which is preceded (either directly or within the main sentence) by an adverb or adjective indicating manner, degree, or quantity:

Diogeno estis tiel saĝa greka viro ke Aleksandro laŭdis lin, Diogenes was such a wise Greek man that Alexander praised him.
Mi havis tiom da plezuro ke mi tre ridis, I had so much pleasure that I laughed very much.
Ĝi estas tia vilaĝo ke mi ŝatas loĝi tie, it is such (that sort of) a village that I like to live there.

Diogenes was such a wise Greek man that Alexander praised him.
I had so much fun that I couldn't stop laughing.
It's the kind of village that I love living in.

Vocabulary.
aĉeti, to buy.
asparago, asparagus.
brasiko, cabbage.
butiko, store, shop.
frago, strawberry.
funto, pound.
glaso, glass, tumbler.
ĵaŭdo, Thursday.
kremo, cream.
kontuzo, bruise.
lakto, milk.
legomo, vegetable.
ovo, egg.
pizo, pea.
sabato, Saturday.
tiom, that much (104).
vendredo, Friday.
vilaĝo, village.
EN LA BUTIKO.

Hodiaŭ matene mi iris kun la patrino al la plej granda butiko en nia vilaĝo. Tie ŝi aĉetis tiom da legomoj kaj fruktoj ke ni tute ne povis porti ilin. Tial juna knabo venis kun ni, kaj portis kelke da ili por ni. La patrino ne aĉetis tiel multe je vendredo, sed hodiaŭ estas sabato, kaj ŝi volis aĉeti legomojn por dimanĉo, ĉar dimanĉe oni ne povas iri en la butikojn. Tial sabate oni kutime aĉetas sufiĉe por la manĝoj de sabato kaj dimanĉo. Meze de la butiko staras multe da bareloj. En ĉi tiuj oni trovas grandan nombron da freŝaj puraj legomoj. La patrino aĉetis tiel multe da asparago kaj novaj pizoj, kaj tiel grandan sakon da terpomoj, ke la tablo restis preskaŭ nuda. Mi vidis brasikon tie, sed tiun legomon mi malŝatas, kvankam oni diras ke ĝi estas tre bona legomo. Antaŭ ol foriri de la butiko la patrino aĉetis kelke da ovoj, kaj rigardis la fruktojn en bareloj apud la pordo. Ili ŝajnis tiel bonaj ke ŝi aĉetis kelkajn maturajn pomojn kaj skatolon da fragoj. Dum oni donis al ŝi la fruktojn, mi aĉetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero. Tiam ni estis pretaj por foriri el la butiko. Sur la vojo ni aŭdis tiel grandan bruon ke mi lasis la patrinon kaj kuris trans la straton. Mi trovis tie infanon,la filon de nia najbaro. Li faris la bruon, ĉar li falis de la arbo antaŭ sia domo, kaj tre laŭte ploris. Li diris al mi ke li havas multajn kontuzojn sur la kapo. Ĉar mi bone konas la infanon, mi demandis "Ĉu vi volas grandan ruĝan pomon? Mi havas tian pomon por vi." Li tuj kaptis la pomon, kaj mi foriris. Tiam la patrino kaj mi iris al la domo.

This morning, I went with my mom to the biggest store in our village. She bought so many vegetables and fruits that we couldn't carry them all. So, a young boy came with us and carried some of them for us. Mom didn't buy as much on Friday, but today is Saturday, and she wanted to get vegetables for Sunday since stores are closed then. That's why on Saturdays, people usually buy enough for their meals on Saturday and Sunday. There are many barrels in the middle of the store. In these, you can find a large number of fresh, clean vegetables. Mom bought so much asparagus and new peas, and such a big bag of potatoes that the table was almost empty. I saw cabbage there, but I don't like that vegetable, even though people say it's very good. Before leaving the store, Mom bought some eggs and checked out the fruits in barrels by the door. They looked so good that she bought some ripe apples and a box of strawberries. While they were handing her the fruits, I bought a few pounds of sugar. Then we were ready to leave the store. On the way, we heard such a loud noise that I left my mom and ran across the street. I found a child there, the son of our neighbor. He was making the noise because he had fallen from the tree in front of his house and was crying very loudly. He told me he had a lot of bruises on his head. Since I know the kid well, I asked, "Do you want a big red apple? I have one for you." He quickly grabbed the apple, and I went on my way. Then Mom and I headed home.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. I shall go to the village today with my younger sister. 2. We wish to buy some eggs, vegetables and fruit for Mother. 3. Mother prefers to remain in the house, because it is raining. 4. It rained on Thursday and Friday, but today it is not raining very much. 5. The air is warm and pleasant, and we shall carry umbrellas with us. 6. We shall buy some new peas, a box of strawberries and several pounds of sugar. 7. Thus we shall have enough for the meals of Saturday and Sunday. 8. I wonder whether we shall see such asparagus and such cabbage on the tables or in the barrels. 9. Although I do not often eat such vegetables, Father and Mother are very fond of (multe ŝatas) both cabbage and asparagus. 10. We shall also buy enough milk for several glasses of milk, and we shall need much cream for the strawberries. 11. It seems that we shall buy such a number of vegetables that we cannot carry them. 12. While we were standing near the door, ready to go toward the village (46), we heard a loud voice. 13. A child was standing in the street, and crying. 14. He wished to go with his mother to visit some friends. 15. I suppose that a noise on the street waked him, and he did not wish to remain in his bed.

1. I'm going to the village today with my younger sister. 2. We want to buy some eggs, vegetables, and fruit for Mom. 3. Mom prefers to stay inside because it’s raining. 4. It rained on Thursday and Friday, but today it’s not raining much. 5. The air is warm and pleasant, and we’ll take umbrellas with us. 6. We’ll buy some fresh peas, a box of strawberries, and several pounds of sugar. 7. That way, we’ll have enough for meals on Saturday and Sunday. 8. I wonder if we’ll find good asparagus and cabbage on the tables or in the barrels. 9. Even though I don’t usually eat those vegetables, Dad and Mom really like both cabbage and asparagus. 10. We’ll also get enough milk for several glasses and we’ll need a lot of cream for the strawberries. 11. It seems like we’ll buy so many vegetables that we won’t be able to carry them all. 12. While we were standing near the door, ready to head to the village (46), we heard a loud voice. 13. A child was standing in the street and crying. 14. He wanted to go with his mom to visit some friends. 15. I guess the noise outside woke him up, and he didn’t want to stay in bed.

LESSON XXIV.
THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.

106. The interrogative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is kiu, who, which. Since the use of this pronoun indicates a question, the sentence containing it does not need the interrogative adverb ĉu (30):

106. The interrogative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is kiu, who, which. Because using this pronoun shows a question, the sentence that includes it doesn't require the interrogative adverb ĉu (30):

Kiu vokas vin? Who calls you?
Kiun vi vokas? Whom do you call?
Kiuj el vi vokis nin? Which (ones) of you called us?
Kiujn li helpis? Whom (which ones) did he help?
Kiun tagon vi venos? What day will you come?
Kiujn legomojn vi preferas? What vegetables do you prefer?
Mi miras kiun libron vi aĉetis, I wonder which book you bought?

Who’s calling you? Who calls you?
Who are you calling? Whom do you call?
Which of you called us? Which (ones) of you called us?
Who did he help? Whom (which ones) did he help?
What day will you come? What day will you come?
What vegetables do you prefer? What vegetables do you prefer?
I wonder which book you bought. I wonder which book you bought?

107. The interrogative pronoun kiu has a possessive or genitive form kies, whose:

107. The interrogative pronoun kiu has a possessive or genitive form kies, whose:

En kies domo vi loĝas? In whose house do you reside?
Kies amikojn vi vizitis? Whose friends did you visit?

Whose house do you live in? In whose house do you reside?
Whose friends did you visit? Whose friends did you visit?

THE PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.

108. A participle is a verbal adjective, as in "a crying child." It agrees like other adjectives with the word modified (19, 24). The participle from a transitive verb (22) may take a direct object, and a participle expressing motion may be followed by an accusative indicating direction of motion (46). The present active participle, expressing what the word modified is doing, ends in -anta, as vidanta, seeing, iranta, going:

108. A participle is a verbal adjective, like in "a crying child." It agrees with the word it modifies, just like other adjectives (19, 24). The participle from a transitive verb (22) can take a direct object, and a participle that shows motion can be followed by an accusative that indicates the direction of that motion (46). The present active participle, which shows what the word it modifies is doing, ends in -anta, like vidanta, seeing, and iranta, going:

La ploranta infano volas dormi, the crying child wishes to sleep.
Mi vidas la falantajn foliojn, I see the falling leaves.
Kiu estas la virino aĉetanta ovojn? Who is the woman buying eggs?
Mi parolis al la viroj irantaj vilaĝon, I talked to the men (who were) going toward the village.

The crying child wants to sleep, the crying child wishes to sleep.
I see the falling leaves, I see the falling leaves.
Who is the woman buying eggs? Who is the woman buying eggs?
I talked to the men going to the village, I talked to the men (who were) going toward the village.

COMPOUND TENSES.

109. A participle may be used predicatively with a form of esti, as Mi estas demandanta, I am asking, La viro estas aĉetanta, the man is buying. Such combinations are called compound tenses, in contrast to the simple or aoristic tenses.

109. A participle can be used as a predicate with a form of esti, like Mi estas demandanta, I am asking, La viro estas aĉetanta, the man is buying. These combinations are known as compound tenses, in contrast to the simple or aoristic tenses.

An aoristic tense consists of but one word (ending in -as, -os, etc.) and expresses an act or state as a whole, without specifying whether it is finished, still in progress, or yet begun.

An aoristic tense is made up of just one word (ending in -as, -os, etc.) and describes an action or state in its entirety, without indicating whether it is completed, still happening, or has not started yet.

Compound tenses occur less often in Esperanto than in English, and an aoristic Esperanto tense may often be translated by an English compound tense, as La birdoj flugas, the birds are flying. When used to form a compound tense, the verb esti is called the auxiliary verb. No other verb is ever used as an auxiliary (a simpler method than in English, which uses be, have, do, will, shall, would, etc.).

Compound tenses are less common in Esperanto than in English, and an aoristic Esperanto tense can often be translated as an English compound tense, such as La birdoj flugas, the birds are flying. When it’s used to create a compound tense, the verb esti is referred to as the auxiliary verb. No other verb is ever used as an auxiliary (which is simpler than in English that uses be, have, do, will, shall, would, etc.).

THE PROGRESSIVE PRESENT TENSE.

110. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle with the present tense of esti is called the progressive present tense. It differs from the aoristic present by expressing an action as definitely in progress, or a condition as continuously existing, at the moment of speaking. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

110. The compound tense that uses the present active participle along with the present tense of esti is known as the progressive present tense. It differs from the aoristic present by indicating that an action is clearly in progress or a condition is continuously occurring at the moment of speaking. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estas vidanta, I am seeing.
vi estas vidanta, you are seeing.
li (ŝi, ĝi) estas vidanta, he (she, it) is seeing.
ni estas vidantaj, we are seeing.
vi estas vidantaj, you (plural) are seeing.
ili estas vidantaj, they are seeing.

I'm seeing, I am seeing.
You're seeing, you are seeing.
He's (she's, it's) seeing, he (she, it) is seeing.
We're seeing, we are seeing.
You're seeing, you (plural) are seeing.
They're seeing, they are seeing.

THE SUFFIX -EJ-.

111. Words expressing the place where the action indicated by the root occurs, or where the object indicated by the root may be found, are formed by inserting the suffix -ej- before the noun-ending:

111. Words that describe where the action from the root takes place, or where the object indicated by the root can be found, are created by adding the suffix -ej- before the noun ending:

ĉevalejo, stable (from ĉevalo, horse).
dormejo, dormitory (from dormi, to sleep).
herbejo, meadow (from herbo, grass).
loĝejo, lodging-place, dwelling (from loĝi, to dwell, to lodge).

ĉevalejo, stable (from ĉevalo, horse).
dormejo, dormitory (from dormi, to sleep).
herbejo, meadow (from herbo, grass).
loĝejo, lodging-place, dwelling (from loĝi, to dwell, to lodge).

Similar formations are made in English with the suffix -y, as bakery, bindery, grocery, etc. This suffix is equivalent to the -ei in German Bäckerei, bakery, Druckerei, printing-office, etc., and to the -ie in French patisserie, pastry-shop, imprimerie, printing-shop, etc.

Similar words are formed in English with the suffix -y, like bakery, bindery, grocery, etc. This suffix is equivalent to the -ei in German Bäckerei, bakery, Druckerei, printing-office, etc., and to the -ie in French patisserie, pastry-shop, imprimerie, printing-shop, etc.

Vocabulary.
alia, other, another.
baki, to bake.
dika, thick.
facila, easy.
familio, family.
kanapo, sofa.
kies, whose (107).
kiu, who (106).
kuiri, to cook.
kurteno, curtain.
kutimo, custom.
leciono, lesson.
lerni, to learn.
pano, bread.
persono, person.
salono, parlor.
EN NIA DOMO.

Oni ofte miras kies domo en nia vilaĝo estas plej bela, kaj kiu domo estas la plej agrabla loĝejo. Nia domo ne estas tre granda, sed ĝi estas nova kaj ni multe ŝatas ĝin. Ĝia salono estas granda, kun belaj puraj kurtenoj kovrantaj la fenestrojn, kaj mola dika tapiŝo kovranta la plankon. Ĉi tie estas kelkaj seĝoj, malgranda tablo, kaj longa kanapo. Personoj vizitantaj nin kutime sidas en ĉi tiu ĉambro, kaj dum ni estas sidantaj tie ni nur parolas, anstataŭ skribi aŭ legi. Alia ĉambro en la domo estas tre luma kaj agrabla, sed malpli granda. Ĉi tie staras tablo sufiĉe granda por nia tuta familio, kaj en tiu ĉambro oni manĝas. Ofte ni restas tie longan tempon post la manĝo, ĉar la patro rakontas interesajn rakontojn al ni, kaj ni multe ridas, kaj demandas pri tiuj rakontoj, kaj tiel bone amuzas nin ke mi preskaŭ forgesas pri miaj lecionoj. Tamen mi havas multe da lecionoj por lerni, kaj ili tute ne estas facilaj. Je tre frua horo matene mi iras al la lernejo, kun miaj fratoj kaj fratinoj. Nur sabate kaj dimanĉe ni ne iras tien. La lernejo estas malnova kaj malgranda, sed oni estas nun konstruanta novan pli grandan lernejon apud nia domo. Dum la infanoj estas lernantaj siajn lecionojn tie, la patrino kutime iras al la bakejon, por aĉeti sufiĉe da pano, por la manĝoj de la tago. Ofte ŝi iras ankaŭ al aliaj butikoj. Ĵaŭdon ŝi aĉetis kelke da novaj pizoj, kaj da asparago. Vendredon ŝi aĉetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero, skatolon da fragoj, kaj sufiĉe da kremo kaj lakto. Hodiaŭ ŝi estas aĉetanta brasikon kaj sakon da terpomoj. Ŝi volas kuiri tre bonan manĝon, tamen ŝi havas tro multe por fari en la kuirejo, ĉar ŝi ne havas servistinon.

People often wonder whose house in our village is the most beautiful and which one is the most pleasant to live in. Our house isn't very big, but it's new, and we really like it. Its living room is spacious, with beautiful clean curtains covering the windows, and a soft thick carpet covering the floor. There are a few chairs, a small table, and a long sofa. Visitors who come to see us usually sit in this room, and while we're sitting there, we just talk instead of writing or reading. Another room in the house is very bright and nice but smaller. There's a table big enough for our whole family, and that's where we eat. We often stay there for a long time after the meal because Dad tells us interesting stories, and we laugh a lot, asking questions about those stories, which amuses us so much that I almost forget about my lessons. However, I have a lot of lessons to learn, and they aren't easy at all. I leave for school very early in the morning with my brothers and sisters. We only don’t go there on Saturdays and Sundays. The school is old and small, but they are currently building a new, bigger school near our house. While the children are learning their lessons there, Mom usually goes to the bakery to buy enough bread for the day's meals. She often goes to other shops too. On Thursday, she bought some new peas and asparagus. On Friday, she bought a few pounds of sugar, a box of strawberries, and enough cream and milk. Today she is buying cabbage and a sack of potatoes. She wants to cook a really nice meal, but she has too much to do in the kitchen because she doesn't have a maid.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Who is the woman sitting on the sofa in the parlor? 2. I can not easily see her, but I hear her voice. 3. I wonder whose voice that is. 4. However, I think that it is the voice of a friend of Mother's. 5. Now I can see her, although she does not see me. 6. I am well acquainted with her. 7. She is a friend of our whole family, and is visiting a neighbor of ours (najbaron nian) in this city. 8. My sister is sitting on the sofa in another room, and learning her lessons. 9. Soon she will go to school. 10. Whose book is she reading? 11. That thick book is mine, but the other books on the table near her are hers. 12. She prefers to sit in the sewing-room (111) to read or write (98), because the curtains in front of the windows are not too thick, and so (78) that room is very light and pleasant. 13. She also likes to look at the falling snow, and the men and women walking on the muddy streets. 14. On account of the cold weather, people are wearing thick clothes. 15. The men and boys are keeping their hands in their pockets while they walk. 16. The girls walking toward the school are friends of my sister's. 17. In that school they learn to cook. Soon they will be able to bake bread, and even to cook a whole meal. 18. I think such a custom is very good. 19. Many persons can not cook well enough (sufiĉe bone).

1. Who is the woman sitting on the sofa in the living room? 2. I can’t see her clearly, but I can hear her voice. 3. I wonder whose voice that is. 4. I think it’s the voice of a friend of my mom's. 5. Now I can see her, even though she doesn’t see me. 6. I know her well. 7. She’s a family friend and is visiting a neighbor of ours in this city. 8. My sister is sitting on the sofa in another room, studying her lessons. 9. She’ll be going to school soon. 10. Whose book is she reading? 11. That big book is mine, but the other books on the table near her are hers. 12. She prefers to sit in the sewing room to read or write because the curtains in front of the windows aren’t too thick, so that room is very bright and pleasant. 13. She also enjoys watching the falling snow and the people walking on the muddy streets. 14. Because of the cold weather, people are wearing heavy clothes. 15. The men and boys are keeping their hands in their pockets as they walk. 16. The girls walking toward the school are friends of my sister’s. 17. In that school, they learn to cook. Soon they’ll be able to bake bread and even prepare an entire meal. 18. I think that’s a great tradition. 19. Many people can’t cook well enough.

LESSON XXV.
THE INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE.

112. The interrogative adjective related to the interrogative pronoun kiu, is kia, what kind of, what sort of:

112. The questioning adjective related to the questioning pronoun kiu is kia, what kind of, what sort of:

Kiajn vestojn li portis? What sort of clothes did he wear?
Kian panon vi preferas? What kind of bread do you prefer?
Mi miras kia persono li estas, I wonder what sort of a person he is.
Kia vetero estas? What sort of weather is it?
Kia plezuro! What a pleasure!

What clothes did he wear?
What kind of bread do you prefer?
I wonder what kind of person he is.
What’s the weather like?
What a joy!

THE IMPERFECT TENSE.

113. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle with the past tense of esti represents an act or condition as in progress in past time, but not perfected, and is called the imperfect tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

113. The compound tense created by using the present active participle with the past tense of esti portrays an action or state as ongoing in the past but not completed, and it is referred to as the imperfect tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estis vidanta, I was seeing.
vi estis vidanta, you were seeing.
li (ŝi, ĝi) estis vidanta, he (she, it) was seeing.
ni estis vidantaj, we were seeing.
vi estis vidantaj, you were seeing.
ili estis vidantaj, they were seeing.

I was seeing.
You were seeing.
He (she, it) was seeing.
We were seeing.
You were seeing.
They were seeing.

THE PROGRESSIVE FUTURE TENSE.

114. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle with the future tense of esti represents an act or condition as in progress—or a condition as existing continuously—at a future time, and is called the progressive future tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

114. The compound tense created by using the present active participle with the future tense of esti indicates an action or condition that is ongoing—or a condition that exists continuously—at a future time, and is known as the progressive future tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estos vidanta, I shall be seeing.
vi estos vidanta, you will be seeing.
li (ŝi, ĝi) estos vidanta, he (she, it) will be seeing.
ni estos vidantaj, we shall be seeing.
vi estos vidantaj, you will be seeing.
ili estos vidantaj, they will be seeing.

I will be seeing, I shall be seeing.
You will be seeing, you will be seeing.
He (she, it) will be seeing, he (she, it) will be seeing.
We will be seeing, we shall be seeing.
You will be seeing, you will be seeing.
They will be seeing, they will be seeing.

SALUTATIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS.
115.
When the word or words expressing a salutation or exclamation may be regarded as the direct object of a verb which is not expressed; these words are put in the accusative case:

Bonan matenon! Good morning! (I wish you "good morning.")
Bonan nokton! Good night! (I wish you a "good night.")
Multajn salutojn al via patro! (I send) many greetings to your father!
Dankon! Thanks! (I give to you "thanks.")
Ĉielon! Heavens! (I invoke the "heavens.")

Good morning! Good morning! (I wish you "good morning.")
Good night! Good night! (I wish you a "good night.")
Sending many greetings to your father! (I send) many greetings to your father!
Thanks! Thanks! (I give to you "thanks.")
Wow! Heavens! (I invoke the "heavens.")

WORD FORMATION.

116. The majority of roots have such a meaning that at least two kinds of words, and often three or four, may be formed from them by use of the general endings for verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs. (Each root will hereafter be quoted but once in the vocabularies, with a hyphen separating it from the ending with which it appears first in the reading lesson, or with which it is most frequently used.) Following are examples of word formation from roots already familiar:

116. Most roots have meanings that allow for the creation of at least two types of words, and often three or four, using the general endings for verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. (Each root will only be mentioned once in the vocabularies, separated by a hyphen from the ending with which it first appears in the reading lesson, or the one it is most commonly associated with.) Here are some examples of how words are formed from roots that we already know:

Verb.Noun.Adjective.Adverb.
brili, to shinebrilo, shine, brilliancebrila, shining, brilliantbrile, brilliantly
flori, to bloomfloro, flower, blossomflora, floralflore, florally
ĝoji, to rejoiceĝojo, joy, gladnessĝoja, joyful, gladĝoje, gladly
kontuzi, to bruisekontuzo, bruise, contusion  
 tuto, wholetuta, entire, whole, alltute, entirely
KONI AND SCII.

117. The verb koni, which means "to know" in the sense of "to be acquainted with" is used in speaking of persons, languages, places, etc. Koni always has a direct object. It is never followed by ke, ĉu, kiu, or any other interrogative word. Scii means "to know" in the sense of "to be aware," "to have knowledge." It is not used in speaking of persons.

117. The verb koni, which means "to know" in the sense of "to be acquainted with," is used when talking about people, languages, places, etc. Koni always requires a direct object. It is never followed by ke, ĉu, kiu, or any other question word. Scii means "to know" in the sense of "to be aware" or "to have knowledge." It is not used when referring to people.

Koni is equivalent to German kennen, French connaitre, Spanish conocer, while scii is equivalent to German wissen, French savoir, Spanish saber.

Koni is like the German word kennen, the French word connaitre, and the Spanish word conocer, while scii is similar to the German wissen, the French savoir, and the Spanish saber.

Ĉu vi konas tiun personon? Do you know that person?
Mi scias ke li estas nia najbaro, I know that he is our neighbor.
Mi bone konas Bostonon, I am well acquainted with Boston.
Mi ne scias ĉu li konas ilin, I do not know whether he knows them.

Do you know that person?
I know that he is our neighbor.
I know Boston pretty well, I am well acquainted with Boston.
I don't know if he knows them, I do not know whether he knows them.

Vocabulary.
av-o, grandfather.
buked-o, bouquet.
ekzamen-o, examination.
ferm-i, to close.
frap-i, to strike, to knock.
geometri-o, geometry.
german-a, German.
hejm-o, home.
kia, what kind of (112).
lingv-o, language.
nep-o, grandson.
nu! Well!
paper-o, paper.
salut-i, to greet.
sci-i, to know (117).
stud-i, to study.
LA NEPO VIZITAS LA AVINON.

Hieraŭ matene mi vizitis la avinon. Ŝia hejmo estas apud la granda nova bakejo. Mi vidis ŝin tra la fenestro, ĉar la kurtenoj kovrantaj ĝin estas tre maldikaj. Ŝi estis sidanta sur la kanapo, kaj skribanta per plumo sur granda papero. Antaŭ ol frapi sur la pordo mi vokis ŝin kaj diris "Bonan matenon, kara avino!" Tuj ŝi demandis "Kiu estas tie? Kies voĉon mi aŭdas?" Mi respondis "Estas via nepo. Ĉu vi ne konas mian voĉon?" Antaŭ ol ŝi povis veni al la pordo mi estis malfermanta ĝin. Mi iris en la salonon kaj donis al la avino bukedon da floroj. "La patrino donas ĉi tiujn al vi, kun siaj plej bonaj salutoj," mi diris. La avino respondis "Nu, kia plezuro! Multan dankon al ŝi pro la bela bukedo, kaj ankaŭ al vi, ĉar vi portis ĝin ĉi tien por mi!" Dum ŝi estis metanta la florojn en glason da akvo la avino diris "Nu, kiajn lecionojn vi havis hodiaŭ en la lernejo?" Mi respondis ke mi bone konis la lecionojn, ĉar mi zorge studis ilin. "Ni estas lernantaj la germanan lingvon," mi diris, "kaj ju pli longe ni studas ĝin, des pli multe mi ĝin ŝatas, kvankam ĝi estas tre malfacila." Mi rakontis ankaŭ pri la lecionoj de geometrio, kaj aliaj lecionoj, sed diris ke la ekzamenoj estos baldaŭ komencantaj. "Je tiu tempo," mi diris, "mi estos skribanta la respondojn al la ekzamenoj, preskaŭ la tutan semajnon." La avino demandis kun intereso "Ĉu la demandoj de la ekzamenoj estos malfacilaj?" Mi respondis "Mi ne scias, sed mi timas ke ni estos tre lacaj post tiom da laboro." Post kelke da aliaj demandoj kaj respondoj, mi opiniis ke estas la horo por foriri. Dum mi estis foriranta, la avino diris "Multajn salutojn al la tuta familio!" Mi dankis ŝin, diris "Bonan tagon!" kaj tiam foriris.

Yesterday morning, I visited my grandmother. Her house is next to the big new bakery. I saw her through the window because the curtains covering it are very thin. She was sitting on the couch, writing with a pen on a large sheet of paper. Before I knocked on the door, I called out to her and said, "Good morning, dear grandma!" Right away she asked, "Who’s there? Whose voice am I hearing?" I replied, "It’s your grandchild. Don’t you recognize my voice?" Before she could come to the door, I was already opening it. I went into the living room and gave my grandma a bouquet of flowers. "Mom sent these to you, with her best regards," I said. Grandma replied, "Oh, how lovely! Thank her very much for the beautiful bouquet, and also thank you for bringing it here for me!" While she was putting the flowers in a glass of water, grandma asked, "So, what lessons did you have today at school?" I replied that I was familiar with the lessons because I had studied them carefully. "We are learning the German language," I said, "and the longer we study it, the more I like it, even though it’s very difficult." I also talked about the geometry lessons and other subjects, but said that the exams would start soon. "At that time," I said, "I will be writing the answers to the exams almost all week." Grandma asked with interest, "Will the exam questions be difficult?" I answered, "I don’t know, but I’m afraid we will be very tired after so much work." After a few more questions and answers, I thought it was time to leave. As I was leaving, grandma said, "Send my greetings to the whole family!" I thanked her, said "Have a good day!" and then left.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. What sort of noise do I hear outside the door? 2. Are some of my friends knocking? 3. We were talking yesterday about the examinations in our school, and these boys came home to study with me. 4. I shall go to the door to open it and to greet my friends. 5. Good morning! Did you come to study geometry, or the German language? 6. Which of these is usually more difficult, and in which will the examination be the longer? 7. Well, we brought our German books, because we prefer to study these. 8. We wish to know this language thoroughly. 9. We shall go into the writing-room (111), for (83) some friends of my grandmother are in the parlor. 10. We can hear their voices here, and we can not study very well while they are talking. 11. They were carrying many flowers, and gave a beautiful bouquet to my grandmother. 12. She said "Many thanks for (86) the sweet violets! In whose garden did they bloom?" 13. Her friend's granddaughter is a friend of my youngest sister. 14. Well, shall we begin to study? Have you enough paper, and have you a good pen? 15. I shall close this other door, because they are baking bread in the kitchen, and cooking meat. 16. We shall be hearing the voices of so many persons that I know that we can not study.

1. What kind of noise do I hear outside the door? 2. Are some of my friends knocking? 3. We were talking yesterday about the tests at school, and these guys came over to study with me. 4. I’ll go to the door to open it and welcome my friends. 5. Good morning! Did you come to study geometry or German? 6. Which of these is usually harder, and which exam will be longer? 7. Well, we brought our German books because we prefer studying that. 8. We want to master this language. 9. Let’s go into the study (111) because (83) some of my grandmother's friends are in the living room. 10. We can hear their voices from here, and we can’t focus on studying while they’re talking. 11. They were carrying a lot of flowers and gave a beautiful bouquet to my grandmother. 12. She said, "Thank you so much for the sweet violets! Which garden did they come from?" 13. Her friend's granddaughter is a friend of my youngest sister. 14. So, should we start studying? Do you have enough paper, and do you have a good pen? 15. I’ll close this other door because they’re baking bread in the kitchen and cooking meat. 16. With so many people talking, I know we won’t be able to study.

LESSON XXVI.
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.

118. The interrogative adverb of place, related to the interrogative pronoun kiu is kie, where, in (at) what place. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by kie, the ending -n is added, forming kien, whither (where):

118. The question word for place that relates to the question pronoun kiu is kie, where, in (at) what place. If the verb in the sentence shows movement toward the place indicated by kie, the ending -n is added, creating kien, whither (where):

Kie li estis kaj kien oni forpelis lin? Where was he and whither did they drive him (away)?
Li miros kie lia nepo estas, he will wonder where his grandson is.
Mi ne scias kien li kuris, I do not know where (whither) he ran.

Who was he and where were they sending him away? Where was he and where did they drive him (away)?
He will be curious about where his grandson is, he will wonder where his grandson is.
I don’t know where he ran, I do not know where (whither) he ran.

THE PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.

119. The past active participle, (for the characteristics of a participle see 108) expressing what the word modified did or has done, ends in -inta, as vidinta, having seen, irinta, gone, having gone:

119. The past active participle, (for the characteristics of a participle see 108) showing what the word modified did or has done, ends in -inta, like vidinta, having seen, irinta, gone, having gone:

La falintaj folioj estas brunaj, the fallen leaves are brown.
Kiu estas la viro salutinta nin? who is the man having greeted (who greeted) us?
Oni forgesas la foririntajn personojn, one forgets the departed persons (the persons who have gone away).

The fallen leaves are brown, the fallen leaves are brown.
Who is the man who greeted us? who is the man having greeted (who greeted) us?
People forget those who have departed, one forgets the departed persons (the persons who have gone away).

ADVERB DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS.

120. Adverbs may be derived from prepositions whose sense permits, by use of the adverb ending -e:

120. Adverbs can be created from prepositions that allow for it, by adding the adverb ending -e:

Antaŭe li studis la geometrion, previously he studied geometry.
Poste li studis la germanan, afterwards he studied German.
Li marŝis antaŭe, ne malantaŭe, he walked in front, not behind.
Dume la viroj staris ĉirkaŭe, meanwhile the men stood roundabout.
Ili venis kune kaj sidis apude, they came together and sat near by.

He studied geometry before, previously he studied geometry.
Then he studied German, afterwards he studied German.
He walked in front, not behind, he walked in front, not behind.
Meanwhile, the men stood around, meanwhile the men stood roundabout.
They came together and sat nearby, they came together and sat near by.

ADVERBS EXPRESSING DIRECTION OF MOTION.

121. An adverb expressing place or direction is given the ending -n when used with a verb expressing motion toward that place or direction (69, 118, etc.):

121. An adverb that shows place or direction gets the ending -n when it's used with a verb that indicates movement towards that place or direction (69, 118, etc.):

Ĉu li rajdis norden aŭ suden? Did he ride north or south(ward)?
Ni kuris antaŭen, ne malantaŭen, we ran forward, not back.
La bukedo falis eksteren kaj suben, the bouquet fell out and underneath.
Li estis marŝanta hejmen, he was walking home (homeward).

Did he ride north or south? Did he ride north or south(ward)?
We ran forward, not backward, we ran forward, not back.
The bouquet fell out and down, the bouquet fell out and underneath.
He was walking home, he was walking home (homeward).

The adverb may precede the verb and be united with it by simple juxtaposition, if the resulting word is not too long: Li hejmeniris, he went home (he "home-went"). Ni antaŭeniros, we shall advance (go forward). La bukedo subenfalis, the bouquet fell underneath.

The adverb can come before the verb and be combined with it just by placing them next to each other, as long as the resulting word isn't too long: Li hejmeniris, he went home (he "home-went"). Ni antaŭeniros, we shall advance (go forward). La bukedo subenfalis, the bouquet fell underneath.

THE SUFFIX -EG-.

122. The suffix -eg- may be added to a root to augment or intensify its meaning, thus forming an augmentative of the root:

122. The suffix -eg- can be added to a root to enhance or intensify its meaning, thereby creating an augmentative of the root:

barelego, hogshead (from barelo, barrel).
bonega, excellent (from bona, good).
malbonege, wickedly, wretchedly (from malbone, badly, poorly).
domego, mansion (from domo, house).
ploregi, to sob, to wail (from plori, to weep).
treege, exceedingly (from tre, very).

barelego, barrel (from barelo, barrel).
bonega, excellent (from bona, good).
malbonege, wickedly, wretchedly (from malbone, badly, poorly).
domego, mansion (from domo, house).
ploregi, to sob, to wail (from plori, to weep).
treege, very (from tre, very).

Vocabulary.
aer-o, air.
danc-i, to dance.
fulm-o, lightning.
gut-o, drop (of water, etc.).
kie, where (118).
okaz-i, to happen, to occur.
okul-o, eye.
pec-o, piece.
pez-a, heavy.
polv-o, dust.
sekv-i, to follow.
serĉ-i, to hunt for, to search.
silent-a, still, silent.
subit-a, sudden.
tegment-o, roof.
tondr-o, thunder.
LA PLUVEGO.

Nu, kia pluvego okazis hieraŭ vespere! Post kvieta varmega mateno, subite multaj nuboj kovris la ĉielon. La aero ŝajnis peza, kaj estis tute silenta kelkan tempon. Tiam forte blovanta vento frapegis la arbojn, kaj komencis fortege skui la branĉojn. Multege da polvo kaj malgrandaj pecoj da papero dancis kaj flugis ĉirkaŭen en la aero, kaj ankaŭ ĉielen. Falis tiam kelkaj grandaj gutoj da pluvo, kaj ni sciis ke la pluvego estas venanta. Ni malfermis niajn ombrelojn, kaj kuris antaŭen, por iri hejmen antaŭ ol falos multe da pluvo. La fulmo tiel ofte brilis ke ni fermis la okulojn pro ĝi, kaj treege ĝin timis. Preskaŭ tuj la tondro sekvis ĝin. Tondris tiom kaj tiel laŭtege ke la bruo ŝajnis frapi kontraŭ niajn kapojn. Tiam komencis subite pluvegi, sed je tiu tempo ni estis preskaŭ sub la tegmento de nia domo. Dume la vento pli kaj pli blovegis, kaj ju pli forte ĝi blovis, des pli peze la gutoj da pluvo falis teren, kun multege da bruo. Mi opinias ke mi malofte antaŭe vidis tian pluvegon. La sekvintan tagon mi promenis tre frue, kaj vidis ke la pordego al la ĝardeno de mia avo estas kuŝanta sur la tero. Apude mi vidis ventoflagon falintan de la tegmento de tiu granda ĉevalejo. Velkintaj floroj kuŝis sur la tero ĉirkaŭ mi, kaj inter ili estis branĉoj falintaj de la arboj, ĉar la grandega forto de la vento forrompis eĉ ĉi tiujn. Sur malgranda branĉo restis nesto, sed kie estis la birdoj! Mi serĉis la junajn birdojn sed tute ne povis trovi ilin, tial mi opinias ke ili forflugis antaŭ ol la ventoj forrompis de la arbo ilian malgrandan hejmon. Mi ne scias kien ili flugis, sed mi opinias ke ili flugis suden al la arboj en tiu granda kampo trans la rivero.

Wow, what a storm happened last night! After a calm, hot morning, suddenly a lot of clouds covered the sky. The air felt heavy, and it was completely silent for a while. Then a strong wind hit the trees, and began to shake the branches violently. Loads of dust and small bits of paper danced and flew around in the air, even up towards the sky. Then a few large raindrops fell, and we knew the storm was coming. We opened our umbrellas and hurried home before the rain poured down. The lightning flashed so often that we had to close our eyes because of it, and we were really scared. Almost immediately, the thunder followed. It thundered so loudly that it sounded like it was hitting our heads. Suddenly, it started to rain, but by that time we were almost under the roof of our house. Meanwhile, the wind kept blowing harder, and the harder it blew, the heavier the raindrops fell to the ground, making a lot of noise. I think I’ve rarely seen such a downpour before. The next day I took a walk early in the morning and saw that the gate to my grandpa's garden was lying on the ground. Nearby I saw a weather vane that had fallen from the roof of that big stable. Wilted flowers were lying on the ground around me, and among them were branches that had fallen from the trees, as the force of the wind had even broken those. On a small branch, there was a nest, but where were the birds? I looked for the young birds but couldn’t find them at all, so I think they flew away before the winds broke their little home from the tree. I don’t know where they flew to, but I guess they headed south to the trees in that big field across the river.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. While we were walking home (121) from school yesterday, it rained very suddenly. 2. What a storm it was! 3. We were talking about the lessons in geometry, and were looking at these books about the German language. 4. So we did not see the clouds in (on) the sky. 5. Well, we forgot about examinations and began to wonder where to go. 6. We did not know whether we had enough time to run even to Grandfather's house before it would rain. 7. Many papers fell out of our books, and the wind caught them. 8. The wind chased them away from us, and they seemed to dance around in the air. 9. However, we easily caught and gathered them, and then we ran forward. 10. Suddenly it thundered very loudly, and we saw the brilliant lightning in the sky. 11. We almost closed our eyes for the lightning. 12. Big drops of rain fell heavily and struck the dust violently. 13. The air was heavy and still then, and the storm immediately followed the few drops of rain. 14. We hastened across the street, and ran faster and faster. 15. We were exhausted (122) and our clothes were exceedingly wet before we were in the house. 16. The rain was dropping from the roof, but we ran through it, and knocked on the door. 17. We rested some time here, before going home.

1. While we were walking home from school yesterday, it suddenly started to rain. 2. What a storm it was! 3. We were discussing our geometry lessons and looking at these books about the German language. 4. So we didn’t notice the clouds in the sky. 5. Well, we forgot about our exams and started to wonder where to go. 6. We weren’t sure if we had enough time to run to Grandfather's house before it started pouring. 7. A lot of papers fell out of our books, and the wind picked them up. 8. The wind whisked them away from us, and they seemed to dance around in the air. 9. However, we easily caught them and gathered them up, and then we ran ahead. 10. Suddenly, there was a loud clap of thunder, and we saw bright lightning in the sky. 11. We almost closed our eyes in reaction to the lightning. 12. Big drops of rain fell hard and struck the dust aggressively. 13. The air was heavy and still then, and the storm quickly followed the few drops of rain. 14. We hurried across the street and ran faster and faster. 15. We were exhausted and our clothes were completely soaked by the time we got inside. 16. Rain was pouring off the roof, but we dashed through it and knocked on the door. 17. We rested here for a while before heading home.

LESSON XXVII.
THE INTERROGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB

123. The interrogative temporal adverb, related to the interrogative pronoun kiu, is kiam, when, at what time?

123. The questioning time adverb, connected to the questioning pronoun kiu, is kiam, when, at what time?

Kiam li serĉos min? When will he look for me?
Oni miras kiam li venos, they wonder when he is coming (will come).
Kiam falis tiuj gutoj da pluvo? When did those drops of rain fall?

When will he look for me?
They wonder when he is coming.
When did those drops of rain fall?

THE PERFECT TENSE.

124. The compound tense formed by using the past active participle with the present tense of esti is called the perfect tense. It differs from the aoristic past tense (35) and from the imperfect (113) by expressing an act or condition as definitely completed or perfected. The conjugation of vidi in the perfect tense is as follows:

124. The compound tense created by combining the past active participle with the present tense of esti is known as the perfect tense. It is different from the aoristic past tense (35) and the imperfect tense (113) because it indicates that an act or condition is clearly completed or perfected. The conjugation of vidi in the perfect tense is as follows:

mi estas vidinta, I have seen (I am having-seen).
vi estas vidinta, you have seen (you are having-seen).
li (ŝi, ĝi) estas vidinta, he (she, it) has seen (is having-seen).
ni estas vidintaj, we have seen (we are having-seen).
vi estas vidintaj, you have seen (you are having-seen).
ili estas vidintaj, they have seen (they are having-seen).

I have seen, I have seen.
You have seen, you have seen.
He (she, it) has seen, he (she, it) has seen.
We have seen, we have seen.
You have seen, you have seen.
They have seen, they have seen.

THE PREPOSITION ĈE.

125. The general situation of a person, object or action is expressed by the use of the preposition ĉe, at, at the house of, in the region or land of, among, with, etc.:

125. The overall situation of a person, object, or action is conveyed using the preposition ĉe, at, at someone's house, in the area or land of, among, with, etc.:

Li staris silente ĉe la pordego, he stood silently at the gate.
Li loĝas ĉe mia avo, he lives (dwells) at my grandfather's.
Ili estas ĉe la lernejo, they are at the school.
Li restos ĉe amikoj, he will stay with (at the house of) friends.
Li vizitos ĉe ni morgaŭ, he will visit at-our-house tomorrow.

He stood silently at the gate.
He lives at my grandfather's.
They are at school.
He will stay with friends.
He will visit us tomorrow.

THE SUFFIX -AR-.

126. Words expressing a collection, group or assemblage of similar persons or things, as forest (collection of trees), army (assemblage of soldiers), etc., may be formed by the use of the suffix -ar-. This suffix may itself be used as a root to form aro, group, flock, etc., are, in a group, by throngs, etc. Words formed with the suffix -ar- are called collectives:

126. Words that describe a collection, group, or assembly of similar people or things, like forest (a group of trees), army (a group of soldiers), etc., can be created by adding the suffix -ar-. This suffix can also function as a root to form words like aro, group, flock, etc., are, in a group, by throngs, etc. Words that use the suffix -ar- are called collectives:

arbaro, forest (from arbo, tree).
ĉevalaro, herd of horses (from ĉevalo, horse).
kamparo, country (from kampo, field).
libraro, collection of books, library (from libro, book).
amikaro, circle of friends (from amiko, friend).

arbaro, forest (from arbo, tree).
ĉevalaro, herd of horses (from ĉevalo, horse).
kamparo, countryside (from kampo, field).
libraro, library (from libro, book).
amikaro, group of friends (from amiko, friend).

TEMPO AND FOJO.

127. The general word for "time" in the sense of duration, or suitability (as "the proper time"), is tempo. The word fojo, time, occasion, refers to the performance or occurrence of an act or event, in repetition or series:

127. The general term for "time" in the context of duration or appropriateness (as in "the right time") is tempo. The word fojo, time, occasion, refers to the execution or occurrence of an act or event, especially in repetition or sequence:

Mi ne havas multe da tempo, I have not much time.
Li venis multajn fojojn, kaj la lastan fojon li restis longan tempon, he came many times, and the last time he remained a long time.
Kelkajn fojojn laŭte tondris, several times it thundered loudly.
Multe da fojoj ni fermis la okulojn pro la fulmo, many times we closed our eyes on account of the lightning.

I don't have much time, I have not much time.
He came many times, and the last time he stayed for a long time, he came many times, and the last time he remained a long time.
Several times it thundered loudly, several times it thundered loudly.
Many times we closed our eyes because of the lightning, many times we closed our eyes on account of the lightning.

THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF PROPER NOUNS.

128. Proper nouns, that is, nouns which are names of persons, cities, countries, etc., are given Esperanto spelling if they are names of continents, countries, large or very well-known cities, or if they are first (Christian) names of persons, as Azio, Asia, Skotlando, Scotland, Bostono, Boston, Johano, John, Mario, Mary. Surnames and names of places which are small or not well known are more often quoted in the national spelling. The pronunciation may be indicated in parentheses, as Mt. Vernon (Maŭnt Vernon), Roberto Bruce (Brus), Martinique (Martinik'), etc.

128. Proper nouns, meaning names of people, cities, countries, etc., are spelled in Esperanto if they refer to continents, countries, well-known cities, or the first names of individuals, like Azio, Asia, Skotlando, Scotland, Bostono, Boston, Johano, John, Mario, Mary. Last names and names of places that are small or less known are usually quoted in their national spelling. The pronunciation can be given in parentheses, such as Mt. Vernon (Maŭnt Vernon), Roberto Bruce (Brus), Martinique (Martinik'), etc.

Vocabulary.
arane-o, spider.
Azi-o, Asia.
ĉe, at (125).
fin-o, end, ending.
foj-o, time, instance (127).
kiam, when (123).
pacienc-o, patience.
pied-o, foot.
plafon-o, ceiling.
ramp-i, to crawl.
rekt-a, direct, straight.
rimark-i, to notice.
send-i, to send.
Skotland-o, Scotland.
soldat-o, soldier.
sukces-i, to succeed.
supr-e, above.
venk-i, to conquer.
ROBERTO BRUCE KAJ LA ARANEO.

Oni rakontas la sekvantan interesan rakonton pri Roberto Bruce, reĝo antaŭ multaj jaroj en Skotlando. Okazis ke li estis rigardanta la soldataron de siaj malamikoj, de la fenestro de granda ĉevalejo. Por povi rigardi plej facile, kaj ankaŭ por sin kaŝi, li forsendis siajn soldatojn kaj restis la tutan tagon sub tiu tegmento. Kvankam la ĉevalejo estis granda ĝi estis malnova, kaj li opiniis ke la malamikoj ne serĉos lin tie. Je la fino de la tago li subite rimarkis araneon sur la muro apud si. La araneo estis rampanta supren, sed baldaŭ ĝi falis en la polvon ĉe liaj piedoj. Tuj la falinta araneo komencis alian fojon supren rampi. Alian fojon ĝi falis teren, sed post ne longe ĝi komencis rampi alian fojon. "Kia pacienco!" diris la reĝo al si. "Mi ne sciis ke la araneo havas tiel multe da pacienco! Sed kien ĝi nun estas falinta?" Li rigardis ĉirkaŭen kaj fine (finally) li vidis la falintan araneon. Kun granda surprizo li rimarkis ke ĝi estas komencanta supren rampi. Multajn fojojn ĝi supren rampis, kaj tiom da fojoj ĝi falis malsupren. Fine, tamen, ĝi sukcese rampis ĝis la plafono. La reĝo malfermis la buŝon pro surprizo, kaj diris al si "Kiam antaŭe mi vidis tiom da pacienco! Mi opinias ke la fina sukceso de tiu malgranda araneo donas al mi bonegan lecionon. Mi estas ofte malsukcesinta, sed malpli ofte ol tiu araneo sur la muro. Mi estas perdinta multe da soldatoj, kaj la malamikoj estas venkintaj multajn fojojn, ĉar ili havas multe pli grandan nombron da soldatoj. Tamen, mi estos pacienca, ĉar oni ne scias kiam li fine sukcesos." La sekvintan tagon, la reĝo Roberto Bruce komencis treege labori kontraŭ siaj malamikoj. Post mallonga tempo li bone sukcesis, kaj tute venkis la malamikoj en granda venko ĉe Bannockburn (Banokb'rn).

Once, there was an interesting story about Robert Bruce, a king many years ago in Scotland. He was watching his enemy’s army from the window of a large stable. To see more easily and to hide, he sent away his soldiers and stayed under that roof all day. Although the stable was big, it was old, and he thought the enemies wouldn’t search for him there. By the end of the day, he suddenly noticed a spider on the wall beside him. The spider was climbing up, but soon it fell into the dust at his feet. Immediately, the fallen spider started climbing up again. It fell down again, but before long it began to climb once more. “What patience!” the king said to himself. “I didn’t know a spider could have so much patience! But where has it fallen now?” He looked around and finally saw the fallen spider. To his great surprise, he noticed it starting to climb up again. It climbed up many times, and it fell down that many times too. In the end, however, it successfully climbed up to the ceiling. The king opened his mouth in surprise and said to himself, “When have I ever seen such patience! I think the final success of that little spider gives me a great lesson. I have often failed, but not as often as that spider on the wall. I have lost many soldiers, and the enemies have defeated me many times because they have many more troops. Still, I will be patient, because you never know when you’ll finally succeed.” The next day, King Robert Bruce began to work very hard against his enemies. After a short time, he succeeded well and completely defeated the enemies in a great victory at Bannockburn.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Although the enemies of Robert Bruce conquered him many times, he finally conquered them in Scotland, because he was patient and very courageous. 2. He was sitting in a large stable, to hide (himself), and also in order to (98) look directly from its roof (at) the soldiery (126) of the enemy. 3. At the end of the day he noticed a spider crawling up (ward) on the wall. 4. The spider fell suddenly into the dust and lay at the king's feet, but soon began to crawl up. 5. "Where does it wish to go?" said the king to himself. 6. "What patience it shows! It has crawled up and fallen down a great many times." 7. Finally however the spider succeeded, and crawled up to the ceiling. 8. The king said that he had learned a lesson from the patient spider. 9. He said "Although the enemy have conquered many times, because they have a larger number of soldiers, I shall finally succeed against them." 10. Soon it happened that the wind blew violently, and a rainstorm occurred. 11. The blast shook the foliage (126) on the trees, and broke away many small branches. 12. A group of soldiers ran right (rekte) toward the stable, and Robert Bruce was much afraid that they would find him. 13. But they merely stole the horses there, and rode away.

1. Even though Robert Bruce was defeated by his enemies many times, he ultimately triumphed over them in Scotland because he was patient and very courageous. 2. He was hiding in a large stable, not only to conceal himself but also to look down from its roof at the enemy soldiers. 3. At the end of the day, he spotted a spider crawling up the wall. 4. The spider suddenly fell into the dust and landed at the king's feet, but soon started crawling back up. 5. "Where does it want to go?" the king thought to himself. 6. "What patience it has! It has crawled up and fallen down many times." 7. Eventually, the spider succeeded and reached the ceiling. 8. The king said he learned a lesson from the patient spider. 9. He declared, "Even though the enemy has defeated me many times because they have more soldiers, I will ultimately succeed against them." 10. Soon, a strong wind blew, and a rainstorm hit. 11. The gust shook the leaves on the trees and broke off many small branches. 12. A group of soldiers rushed toward the stable, and Robert Bruce was very afraid they would find him. 13. But they only stole the horses and rode away.

LESSON XXVIII.
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.

129. The interrogative adverb of motive or reason related to the interrogative pronoun kiu is kial, why, wherefore, for what reason:

129. The question word for motive or reason related to the question pronoun kiu is kial, why, wherefore, for what reason:

Kial la araneo supren rampis? why did the spider crawl up?
Mi demandos kial li rimarkis ĝin, I will ask why he noticed it.

Why did the spider crawl up? I will ask why he noticed it.

THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT.

130. The infinitive may be used as the subject of a verb.

130. The infinitive can be used as the subject of a verb.

Cf. the complementary infinitive (28), equivalent to the object of a verb, and the use of the infinitive after the prepositions por, anstataŭ, antaŭ ol (98).

Cf. the complementary infinitive (28), which is equivalent to the object of a verb, and the use of the infinitive after the prepositions por, anstataŭ, antaŭ ol (98).

Any modifier of the infinitive is necessarily adverbial. An indefinite personal object (or pronominal complement of a preposition) after an infinitive used as subject is expressed by the reflexive pronoun si:

Any modifier of the infinitive is always adverbial. An indefinite personal object (or pronominal complement of a preposition) that follows an infinitive used as a subject is expressed by the reflexive pronoun si:

Promeni estas granda plezuro, to go walking is a great pleasure.
Promeni estas agrable, to go walking is pleasant.
Ĉu estas facile rigardi la plafonon? Is it easy to look at the ceiling?
Estas bone sin helpi, it is well to help oneself.
Paroli al si estas malsaĝe, to talk to oneself is silly.

Walking is a great pleasure, to go walking is a great pleasure.
Walking is enjoyable, to go walking is pleasant.
Is it easy to look at the ceiling? Is it easy to look at the ceiling?
It’s good to help yourself, it is well to help oneself.
Talking to yourself is silly, to talk to oneself is silly.

PRESENT ACTION WITH PAST INCEPTION.

131. A present act or state which began in the past is expressed by the present tense (instead of by the past as in English):

131. A current action or situation that started in the past is expressed in the present tense (instead of in the past as in English):

Mi estas ĉi tie de lundo, I have been (I am) here since Monday.
De Marto mi studas tiun lingvon, since March I have been (I am) studying that language.
Ili estas amikoj de tiu tago, they have been (they are) friends from that day.
Ni loĝas tie de antaŭ kelkaj monatoj, we have been living (we are living) here since some months ago.

I’ve been here since Monday.
Since March, I’ve been studying that language.
They’ve been friends since that day.
We’ve been living here for a few months.

Cf. German er ist schon lange hier, he has already been here a long time, French je suis ici depuis deux ans, I have been here two years, etc.

Cf. German er ist schon lange hier, he has already been here for a long time, French je suis ici depuis deux ans, I have been here for two years, etc.

THE SUFFIX -UL-.

132. The suffix -ul- is used to form nouns indicating a person characterized by or possessing the distinguishing trait, character or quality in the root:

132. The suffix -ul- is used to create nouns that indicate a person who has or is characterized by the specific trait, character, or quality found in the root:

junulo, a youth, a young man (from juna, young).
belulino, a beauty, a belle (from bela, beautiful).
maljunulo, an old man (from maljuna, old).
saĝulo, a sage, a wise man (from saga, wise).
malriĉulino, a poor woman (from malriĉa, poor).

junulo, a young person, a young man (from juna, young).
belulino, a beauty, a pretty girl (from bela, beautiful).
maljunulo, an old man (from maljuna, old).
saĝulo, a sage, a wise person (from saga, wise).
malriĉulino, a poor woman (from malriĉa, poor).

Cf. the English adjectives quer-ul-ous, cred-ul-ous, garr-ul-ous, etc., and the Latin nouns fam-ul-us, a servant, fig-ul-us, a potter, and leg-ul-us, a gatherer.

Cf. the English adjectives querulous, credulous, garrulous, etc., and the Latin nouns famulus, a servant, figulus, a potter, and legulus, a gatherer.

LOĜI AND VIVI.

133. The verb loĝi, to reside, to dwell, to lodge, must not be confused with vivi, which means to live in the sense of "to be alive:"

133. The verb loĝi, to reside, to dwell, to lodge, should not be confused with vivi, which means to live in the sense of "to be alive:"

Li loĝas apude, he lives near by.
Li vivis longan tempon, he lived a long time.
Vivi feliĉe estas pli bone ol loĝi riĉe, to live happily is better than to live (lodge) richly.

He lives nearby, he lives nearby.
He lived for a long time, he lived a long time.
Living happily is better than living richly, to live happily is better than to live (lodge) richly.

Vocabulary.
afabl-a, amiable, affable.
afer-o, thing, matter, affair.
balanc-i, to balance, to nod.
barb-o, beard.
batal-o, battle.
brov-o, eyebrow.
bukl-o, curl (of hair).
har-o, hair.
kial, why (129).
mejl-o, mile.
okulhar-o, eyelash.
okulvitr-oj, spectacles.
pens-i, to think, to ponder.
vang-o, cheek.
verand-o, porch, veranda.
viv-i, to live (133).
PRI LA AVO KAJ LA AVINO.

Mia avo estas tre afabla persono. Li estas maljunulo kun blankaj haroj kaj blanka barbo. Li havas bluajn okulojn, kaj la brovoj super ili estas eĉ pli blankaj ol liaj haroj. Kvankam li loĝas en nia vilaĝo de antaŭ kelkaj jaroj, li antaŭe loĝis en Skotlando. Antaŭ multaj jaroj li estis soldato, kaj li ofte parolas al mi pri la bataloj kaj venkoj de tiu tempo. Sidi kviete sur la verando kaj rakonti tiajn rakontojn al la nepo ŝajne donas al li multe da plezuro. Multajn fojojn je la fino de la tago li sidas tie, kaj parolas pri tiaj aferoj ĝis malfrua horo de la vespero. Sidi ĉe liaj piedoj kaj aŭdi liajn rakontojn estas tre interese al mi. Komence, dum mi estas ĉe li, mi kutime demandas "Ĉu oni sukcesis en tiu batalo?" Tuj li balancas la kapon kaj komencas pacience rakonti pri la venkoj kaj malvenkoj (defeats). Li malofte respondas "Mi ne scias," al miaj demandoj "Kiam," kaj "Kial." Kelkajn fojojn li diras "Mi havas tiun opinion, sed mi ne bone scias pri la tuta afero, kaj mi miras ĉu aliaj personoj scias pli bone." Ĉar li estas multe studinta kaj pensinta, liaj opinioj estas treege interesaj. Li ĝojas tial ke mi demandas pri aferoj okazintaj (things that have happened), ĉar tiaj demandoj montras ke mi ankaŭ pensas pri ili. Mia avino estas malgranda, kun belaj bukloj da tute blankaj haroj. Ŝi havas belajn brunajn okulojn, kun longaj nigraj okulharoj. Oni diras ke antaŭ multaj jaroj ŝi estis belulino. Eĉ nun estas plezure rigardi ŝin, kaj vidi ŝiajn ruĝajn vangojn. De antaŭ kelkaj jaroj ŝi portas okulvitrojn por legi aŭ skribi aŭ kudri, kaj ŝi bezonas ripozon post malmulte da laboro. Promeno de eĉ mejlo estas tro longa nun por la avino. Oni diras ke ŝi ne vivos tre longan tempon, kaj tia penso donas malĝojon al ni, ĉar ni treege amas la afablan paciencan avinon.

Mia grandpa is a very friendly person. He's an elderly man with white hair and a white beard. He has blue eyes, and the eyebrows above them are even whiter than his hair. Although he has lived in our village for a few years, he previously lived in Scotland. Many years ago, he was a soldier, and he often shares stories with me about the battles and victories from that time. Sitting quietly on the porch and telling those stories to his grandchild seems to bring him a lot of joy. Many times at the end of the day, he sits there and talks about those things until late in the evening. Sitting at his feet and listening to his stories is very interesting to me. At first, while I'm with him, I usually ask, "Did they win that battle?" Immediately, he nods and patiently starts recounting the victories and defeats. He rarely responds, "I don't know," to my questions of "When," and "Why." Sometimes he says, "I have that opinion, but I don't really know the whole story, and I wonder if other people know better." Because he has studied and thought a lot, his opinions are extremely interesting. He's happy that I ask about things that have happened, because such questions show that I also think about them. My grandma is small, with beautiful curls of completely white hair. She has lovely brown eyes, with long black eyelashes. They say that many years ago she was a beauty. Even now, it’s a pleasure to look at her and see her rosy cheeks. A few years ago, she started wearing glasses to read, write, or sew, and she needs to rest after only a little work. A walk of even a mile is too long for grandma now. They say she won't live much longer, and that thought makes us sad because we love our charming, patient grandma dearly.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Our grandfather is an old man, and they say that he will not live much longer. 2. He is not very strong, and can not take (fari) long walks. 3. The mile between his house and ours now seems long to him. 4. He prefers to sit quietly in the house or on the veranda, and think, nearly all day long (the whole day). 5. He is very amiable, and can tell exceedingly interesting stories, about the victories and defeats which happened (119) many years ago. 6. Such things are wicked I think, and I am very glad that (83) such battles do not happen now. 7. Grandfather has a long white beard and much white hair. 8. It is very interesting to hear his stories, and also to look directly at him while he is telling them. 9. He tells such stories with great pleasure. 10. Although he has lived with (125) us since February (131), he does not know (117) a great many of the neighbors, or of the other persons living (133) near. 11. Grandmother has blue eyes, red cheeks, and soft white curls. 12. She speaks slowly, with a sweet voice, and is very patient. 13. Today she said to me "Good morning, my dear (132), I have lost my spectacles. Will you look-for them for me?" I nodded (the head) and soon found the spectacles.

1. Our grandfather is an old man, and people say he won’t live much longer. 2. He’s not very strong and can’t take long walks. 3. The mile between his house and ours now feels long to him. 4. He prefers to sit quietly in the house or on the porch, thinking nearly all day long. 5. He is very friendly and can tell incredibly interesting stories about the victories and defeats from many years ago. 6. I think those things are cruel, and I’m really glad such battles don’t happen anymore. 7. Grandfather has a long white beard and a lot of white hair. 8. It’s really interesting to hear his stories and to look directly at him while he tells them. 9. He tells those stories with great joy. 10. Although he’s lived with us since February, he doesn’t know many of the neighbors or other people living nearby. 11. Grandmother has blue eyes, rosy cheeks, and soft white curls. 12. She speaks slowly, with a lovely voice, and is very patient. 13. Today she said to me, “Good morning, my dear, I’ve lost my glasses. Can you help me find them?” I nodded and soon found the glasses.

LESSON XXIX.
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE.

134. The interrogative adverb of manner or degree, related to the interrogative pronoun kiu, is kiel, how, in what way, to what degree:

134. The question word for manner or degree, related to the question pronoun kiu, is kiel, how, in what way, to what extent:

Kiel oni vivas en tia aero? How do people live in such air?
Kiel afabla ŝi estas! How amiable she is!
Mi miras kiel la batalo okazis, I wonder how the battle happened.
Kiel longe li pensis pri ĝi? How long did he think about it?

How do people live in such air?
How friendly she is!
I wonder how the battle took place,
How long did he think about it?

THE PLUPERFECT TENSE.

135. The compound tense formed by combining the past active participle with the past tense of esti represents an act or condition as having been completed at some time in the past, and is called the pluperfect tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

135. The compound tense created by combining the past active participle with the past tense of esti indicates that an action or state was completed at some point in the past and is referred to as the pluperfect tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estis vidinta, I had seen (I was having-seen).
vi estis vidinta, you had seen (you were having-seen).
li (ŝi, ĝi) estis vidinta, he (she, it) had seen (was having-seen).
ni estis vidintaj, we had seen (we were having-seen).
vi estis vidintaj, you had seen (you were having-seen).
ili estis vidintaj, they had seen (they were having-seen).

I had seen, I had seen.
You had seen, you had seen.
He (she, it) had seen, he (she, it) had seen.
We had seen, we had seen.
You had seen, you had seen.
They had seen, they had seen.

CARDINAL NUMERALS.

136. Cardinals are numeral adjectives which answer the question "How many?" The cardinals from one to twelve are as follows:

136. Cardinals are number adjectives that answer the question "How many?" The cardinals from one to twelve are as follows:

unu, one.
du, two.
tri, three.
kvar, four.
kvin, five.
ses, six.
sep, seven.
ok, eight.
naŭ, nine.
dek, ten.
dek unu, eleven.
dek du, twelve.

137. With the exception of unu, none of the cardinals may receive the plural ending -j or the accusative ending -n. That is, they are invariable in form. Unuj may be used to mean some in contrast to aliaj, others:

137. Besides unu, none of the cardinal numbers can take the plural ending -j or the accusative ending -n. In other words, they don’t change form. Unuj can be used to mean some in contrast to aliaj, others:

Unuj marŝis, aliaj kuris, some walked, others ran.
Mi prenis unujn kaj lasis la aliajn, I took some and left the others.

Some walked, others ran, some walked, others ran.
I took some and left the others, I took some and left the others.

138. The preposition el is used after numeral adjectives expressing a number out of some larger number or quantity:

138. The preposition el is used after numeral adjectives indicating a number out of a larger number or quantity:

Ses el la knaboj venis, six of the boys came.
Ok el tiuj libroj estas la miaj, eight of those books are mine.
El tiuj ĉapeloj mi ŝatas nur unu, of those hats I like only one.

Six of the boys came.
Eight of those books are mine.
Of those hats, I like only one.

The cardinal unu must not be used in the sense of the English pronominal "one," as in I am searching for a book, but not the one on the table, which should be translated Mi serĉas libron, sed ne tiun sur la tablo.

The cardinal unu must not be used in the sense of the English pronominal "one," as in I am searching for a book, but not the one on the table, which should be translated Mi serĉas libron, sed ne tiun sur la tablo.

THE ACCUSATIVE OF MEASURE.

139. A substantive in the accusative case may be used, instead of a prepositional phrase or an adverb, not only to express measure (duration) of time (91), but also to express measure of weight, price, length, etc.:

139. A noun in the accusative case can be used instead of a prepositional phrase or an adverb, not just to indicate a measure of time (duration) (91), but also to express measures of weight, price, length, and so on:

Li marŝis dek unu mejlojn, he walked eleven miles.
La parko estas larĝa tri mejlojn, kaj longa kvar mejlojn, the park is three miles wide and four miles long.
La tablo pezas dek du funtojn, the table weighs (is heavy) twelve pounds.

He walked eleven miles.
The park is three miles wide and four miles long.
The table weighs twelve pounds.

NIA FAMILIO.

Mi rakontos al vi kian familion ni havas. Ni estas ses personoj kaj ni loĝas en ĉi tiu domo de antaŭ preskaŭ kvar jaroj. Antaŭ ol veni ĉi tien al la urbo, ni estis loĝintaj tri jarojn en kvieta vilaĝo en la kamparo. Mia patro estas alta, kun grizaj haroj kaj griza barbo. Kvankam li ne estas riĉulo, li tamen havas sufiĉe da mono por vivi kontente kaj feliĉe. Li ŝatas marŝi, kaj ofte li estas marŝinta kvin aŭ ses mejlojn por unu promeno. Unu fojon mi demandis "Kiel vi povas marŝi tiel multe?" Li respondis "Dum mi estis junulo mi estis soldato, kaj tiam mi estis tre multe marŝanta. Tial mi ne forgesas la plezurojn de longaj promenoj." La patrino estas malpli alta ol mi, kaj kiel bluajn okulojn ŝi havas, sub nigraj okulharoj kaj nigraj brovoj! Ŝiaj haroj estas nigraj kaj buklaj, kaj ŝiaj vangoj estas ruĝaj. Ŝi havas dolĉan voĉon, kaj estas plezuro aŭdi ŝiajn kantojn. Por legi aŭ skribi ŝi kutime portas okulvitrojn. Mi havas du fratojn kaj unu fratinon. La fratino havas dek unu jarojn.

Let me tell you about my family. There are six of us, and we've been living in this house for almost four years. Before moving here to the city, we lived for three years in a quiet village in the countryside. My dad is tall, with gray hair and a gray beard. Although he's not wealthy, he has enough money to live comfortably and happily. He enjoys walking and often walks five or six miles in one go. Once I asked him, "How can you walk so much?" He replied, "When I was young, I was a soldier, and back then I did a lot of walking. That's why I still enjoy long walks." My mom is shorter than I am and has blue eyes under her black eyelashes and black eyebrows! Her hair is black and curly, and her cheeks are rosy. She has a sweet voice, and it's a pleasure to hear her sing. She usually wears glasses to read or write. I have two brothers and one sister. My sister is eleven years old.

Like French and some other languages, Esperanto commonly uses the verb to have rather than the verb to be, in expressing age: Li havas sep jarojn, he is seven years old (he has seven years). Mi havis dek jarojn tiam, I was ten years old (I had ten years) then.

Like French and some other languages, Esperanto usually uses the verb to have instead of to be to talk about age: Li havas sep jarojn, he is seven years old (he has seven years). Mi havis dek jarojn tiam, I was ten years old (I had ten years) then.

Unu el la fratoj havas ok jarojn, la alia havas dek du jarojn. Ili povas bonege kuri, rajdi, kaj fari aliajn interesajn aferojn. Ili lernis siajn lecionojn en la lernejo tiel bone ke ses fojojn en unu monato oni laŭdis ilin. Ni multe ĝojis pri tiom da laŭdo por la fratoj. La fratino estas malpli forta, tamen ŝi ofte promenas kun ni eĉ du aŭ tri mejlojn. La avino ankaŭ loĝas ĉe ni de antaŭ sep aŭ ok jaroj. Unu el ni kutime restas ĉe la hejmo kun ŝi, dum la aliaj promenas, ĉar ŝi ne estas sufiĉe forta por marŝi eĉ unu mejlon. Mi ofte miras kial ŝi preferas sidi sur la verando, kaj mi demandas al ŝi "Ĉu vi estas tro laca por marŝi?" Ŝi kutime balancas la kapon kaj diras "Jes, mia nepo, mi estas tro laca."

One of the brothers is eight years old, the other is twelve. They can run, ride, and do other fun things really well. They learned their lessons in school so successfully that they were praised six times in one month. We were very happy about so much praise for the brothers. The sister is not as strong, but she often walks with us even two or three miles. The grandmother has also lived with us for about seven or eight years. One of us usually stays home with her while the others go for walks because she isn't strong enough to walk even one mile. I often wonder why she prefers to sit on the porch, and I ask her, "Are you too tired to walk?" She usually shakes her head and says, "Yes, my grandchild, I am too tired."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Three and four make seven. 2. Two and six make eight. Five and six make eleven. 3. Seven and five make twelve. 4. I have been studying geometry since five months ago, and German since January. 5. I have read three German books, but I shall not be able to talk in this language until after August. 6. To learn how to speak such a language is a difficult matter. 7. Nine of the children in our school are now studying German with me. 8. Some learn it easily, others do not like it. 9. Three of the boys and two of the girls in that school are German. 10. They had resided four years in a large city, but I think (that) they live more contentedly in our quiet village. 11. They can not talk with us very well, but merely nod their heads when we talk to them. 12. I had not seen them before they came to school, although they are neighbors of ours. 13. They are amiable children, with blue eyes, red cheeks, and yellow hair. 14. They can ride very well, and often ride eight or ten miles in one day. 15. They usually ride in a park three miles wide and four miles long, where there is but little (nur malmulte da) dust.

1. Three plus four equals seven. 2. Two plus six equals eight. Five plus six equals eleven. 3. Seven plus five equals twelve. 4. I’ve been studying geometry for the past five months and German since January. 5. I’ve read three German books, but I won’t be able to speak the language until after August. 6. Learning to speak such a language is challenging. 7. Nine of the kids at our school are studying German with me. 8. Some find it easy, while others don’t like it. 9. Three of the boys and two of the girls in that school are German. 10. They lived in a big city for four years, but I believe they are happier in our quiet village. 11. They can’t communicate with us very well, just nodding their heads when we talk to them. 12. I hadn’t seen them before they came to school, even though they’re our neighbors. 13. They are friendly kids, with blue eyes, rosy cheeks, and blonde hair. 14. They can ride really well, often covering eight or ten miles in a single day. 15. They usually ride in a park that’s three miles wide and four miles long, where there’s very little (nur malmulte da) dust.

LESSON XXX.
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.

140. The interrogative adverb of quantity related to the interrogative pronoun kiu is kiom, how much, how many:

140. The interrogative adverb of quantity related to the interrogative pronoun kiu is kiom, how much, how many:

Kiom da tempo vi ripozis? How much time did you rest?
Kiom da sukero kaj kiom da fragoj vi aĉetis? How much sugar and how many strawberries did you buy?
Ni miras kiom da mono li havos, we wonder how much money he will have.
Kiom de la leciono vi lernis? How much of the lesson did you learn?

How long did you rest? How much time did you rest?
How much sugar and how many strawberries did you buy? How much sugar and how many strawberries did you buy?
We wonder how much money he will have, we wonder how much money he will have.
How much of the lesson did you learn? How much of the lesson did you learn?

MODIFIERS OF IMPERSONALLY USED VERBS.

141. Any modifier of an impersonal verb (50) or of a verb used impersonally, that is, with an infinitive or clause for its subject, or without any definitely expressed or personal subject (as in "it is cold," "it seems too early"), must necessarily be adverbial:

141. Any modifier of an impersonal verb (50) or of a verb used impersonally, meaning with an infinitive or clause as its subject, or without any clearly stated personal subject (like "it is cold," "it seems too early"), must definitely be adverbial:

Estas varme en la domo, it is warm in the house.
Estos malvarme morgaŭ, it will be cold tomorrow.
Estas bone ke li venis, it is well that he came.
Estas amuze ke ni forgesis lin, it is amusing that we forgot him.
Ke vi venis estis tre saĝe, that you came was very wise.
Estos pli agrable en la salono, it will be pleasanter in the parlor.

It’s warm in the house, it is warm in the house.
It’s going to be cold tomorrow, it will be cold tomorrow.
It’s good that he came, it is well that he came.
It's funny that we forgot him, it is amusing that we forgot him.
Your coming was very wise, that you came was very wise.
It will be nicer in the living room, it will be pleasanter in the parlor.

FORMATION OF CARDINAL NUMERALS.

142. The cardinal numerals for the tens, hundreds and thousands are formed by prefixing du, tri, kvar, etc., to dek, ten, cent, hundred, and mil, thousand, respectively.

142. The cardinal numbers for the tens, hundreds, and thousands are formed by adding du, tri, kvar, etc., in front of dek, ten, cent, hundred, and mil, thousand, respectively.

Tens.
dudek, twenty.
tridek, thirty.
kvardek, forty.
kvindek, fifty.
sesdek, sixty.
sepdek, seventy.
okdek, eighty.
naŭdek, ninety.
Hundreds.Thousands.
ducent, two hundred.
kvincent, five hundred.
sepcent, seven hundred, etc.
trimil, three thousand.
kvarmil, four thousand.
sesmil, six thousand, etc.

143. The cardinals between ten and twenty, twenty and thirty, etc., are formed by placing unu, du, tri, etc., after dek, dudek, tridek, etc. (Cf. dek unu, eleven, dek du, twelve, 136):

143. The numbers between ten and twenty, twenty and thirty, etc., are made by adding one, two, three, etc., after ten, twelve, thirty, etc. (See. ten one, eleven, ten two, twelve, 136):

dek kvar, fourteen.
dek naŭ, nineteen.
dudek tri, twenty-three.
tridek kvin, thirty-five.
sepdek ok, seventy-eight.
naŭdek ses, ninety-six, etc.

144. Cardinals containing more than two figures begin with the largest number and descend regularly, as in English:

144. Cardinal numbers with more than two digits start with the highest number and decrease steadily, like in English:

cent tridek kvin, one hundred and thirty-five.
kvarcent naŭdek sep, four hundred and ninety-seven.
sescent du, six hundred and two.
mil okdek, one thousand and eighty.
mil naucent dek du, one thousand nine hundred and twelve (nineteen hundred and twelve).

135, one hundred thirty-five.
497, four hundred ninety-seven.
602, six hundred two.
1,080, one thousand eighty.
1,912, one thousand nine hundred twelve.

THE SUFFIX -AN-.

145. The suffix -an- is used to form words indicating an inhabitant or resident of the place denoted by the root, or a member or adherent of the party, organization, etc., denoted by the root. The suffix -an- may itself be used as a root, forming ano, member, etc.

145. The suffix -an- is used to create words that describe someone who lives in a certain place or someone who is a member or supporter of a particular group or organization, as indicated by the root. The suffix -an- can also function as a root itself, forming ano, member, etc.

bostonano, Bostonian.
kamparano, countryman, peasant.
domano, inmate of a house.
vilaĝano, villager.

Cf. English urb-an, suburb-an, Rom-an, republic-an, Mohammed-an, etc.

English urban, suburban, Roman, republican, Mohammedan, etc.

Vocabulary.
aritmetik-o, arithmetic.
cent, hundred (142).
erar-o, error, mistake.
grad-o, grade, degree.
kalkul-i, to calculate, to reckon.
kiom, how much (140).
memor-i, to remember.
mil, thousand (142).
minut-o, minute.
ricev-i, to receive.
sekund-o, second.
superjar-o, leap-year.
LECIONO PRI ARITMETIKO.

Estas malvarme hodiaŭ, kaj tute ne agrable ekster la domo. La urbanoj ne estas promenantaj en la parko, ĉar ili preferas resti en la domoj. Mi ankaŭ restis en la domo, kaj parolis al mia juna frato. Mi helpis lin pri la leciono en aritmetiko, tial ke li baldaŭ havos ekzamenojn, kaj li volas esti preta por skribi tre bonajn respondojn. Mi demandis al li "Kiom faras dek tri kaj dek kvar?" Li respondis ke tiuj faras dudek sep. Tiam mi demandis kiom faras dudek unu kaj tridek kvar. Li kalkulis kvin aŭ ses sekundojn, per mallaŭta voĉo, kaj diris "Ili faras kvindek kvin." Mi demandis kiom faras ducent tri kaj sepcent ok, kaj li respondis ke ili faras naŭcent dek unu. Li tute ne faris erarojn al mi, kaj fine mi diris al li ke li povas bonege kalkuli. Mi opinias ke li ricevos bonan gradon en la ekzamenoj. Post kelkaj minutoj ni komencis paroli pri aliaj aferoj. Mi demandis "Kiom da tagoj en la monato septembro?" La frato respondis "Septembro, novembro, aprilo kaj junio havas tridek tagojn. Kvankam tiuj monatoj havas tiom da tagoj, la aliaj monatoj havas tridek unu tagojn. Sed la monato februaro havas nur dudek ok tagojn." Estas interese lerni pri ĉi tiu monato februaro. Dum tri jaroj ĝi havas dudek ok tagojn, sed en la sekvanta jaro ĝi havas dudek naŭ tagojn. La jaro havanta tian februaron estas la "superjaro." Mi rakontis tiun interesan aferon al la frato, kaj li diris ke li bone memoros ĝin. Li diris ke li ne antaŭe sciis pri la superjaro. Li ne sciis ke la superjaro havas tricent sesdek ses tagojn, kvankam la aliaj jaroj havas nur tricent sesdek kvin tagojn. Li diris ke li ankaŭ memoros pri la nombro da tagoj en la superjaro, kaj ke li rakontos la aferon al la aliaj knaboj.

It's chilly today, and not pleasant at all outside the house. The townspeople aren't walking in the park because they prefer to stay indoors. I also stayed inside and talked to my younger brother. I helped him with his arithmetic lesson since he has exams coming up, and he wants to be ready to write very good answers. I asked him, "What’s thirteen plus fourteen?" He answered that it’s twenty-seven. Then I asked how much twenty-one plus thirty-four makes. He calculated for five or six seconds, quietly, and said, "It’s fifty-five." I asked how much two hundred three plus seven hundred eight is, and he replied that it makes nine hundred eleven. He didn’t make any mistakes, and finally, I told him that he can calculate really well. I think he will get a good grade on the exam. After a few minutes, we started talking about other things. I asked, "How many days are there in the month of September?" My brother replied, "September, November, April, and June have thirty days. Although those months have that many days, the other months have thirty-one. But February only has twenty-eight days." It's interesting to learn about this month, February. For three years, it has twenty-eight days, but in the following year, it has twenty-nine days. The year with that February is a "leap year." I told my brother this interesting fact, and he said he would remember it well. He said he didn't know about the leap year before. He didn't know that a leap year has three hundred sixty-six days, while other years only have three hundred sixty-five. He said he would also remember the number of days in the leap year and that he would tell the other boys.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. (To be written out in full): 14, 18, 42, 86, 79, 236, 431, 687, 788, 1240, 1885, 9872, 4500, 1912. 2. There are twelve months in a year, and in most of the months of the year there are thirty-one days. 3. There are only thirty days in the months April, June, September and November. 4. There are seven days in a week, and twenty-four hours in a day. 5. Twelve of these hours make the day, and the others make the night. 6. There are sixty minutes in one hour, and sixty seconds in one minute. 7. There are four weeks and also two or three days in one month. 8. In the year there are fifty-two weeks. 9. How many weeks are there in ten years? 10. At least one year in ten years is a leap-year. 11. In a leap-year there are three hundred and sixty-six days, instead of three hundred and sixty-five. 12. Wise men calculated about this matter, many years ago. 13. It is well for us that they liked to study arithmetic. 15. I have often received good grades in this study. 16. I remember it easily, and seldom make mistakes.

1. (To be written out in full): 14, 18, 42, 86, 79, 236, 431, 687, 788, 1240, 1885, 9872, 4500, 1912. 2. There are twelve months in a year, and most of those months have thirty-one days. 3. Only April, June, September, and November have thirty days. 4. There are seven days in a week and twenty-four hours in a day. 5. Twelve of those hours make up the daytime, while the others make up the nighttime. 6. There are sixty minutes in an hour and sixty seconds in a minute. 7. A month typically has four weeks plus either two or three extra days. 8. A year consists of fifty-two weeks. 9. How many weeks are there in ten years? 10. At least one year out of every ten is a leap year. 11. In a leap year, there are three hundred and sixty-six days instead of three hundred and sixty-five. 12. Smart people figured this out many years ago. 13. We're lucky they enjoyed studying math. 15. I've often gotten good grades in this subject. 16. I find it easy to remember and rarely make mistakes.

LESSON XXXI.
THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

146. A connecting pronoun referring to something which precedes (or follows) is called a relative pronoun. The person or thing to which it refers is called its antecedent. The relative pronoun, identical in form with the interrogative pronoun (106), as in English, is kiu, which, who.

146. A connecting pronoun that refers to something mentioned before (or after) is called a relative pronoun. The person or thing it refers to is called its antecedent. The relative pronoun, which is the same in form as the interrogative pronoun (106), in English is kiu, which, who.

Sometimes English uses "that" for a relative pronoun, as "I saw the book that you have." This must always be translated by kiu. Likewise, English sometimes omits the relative pronoun, as "I saw the book you have." The relative pronoun is never thus omitted in Esperanto.

Sometimes English uses "that" as a relative pronoun, like "I saw the book that you have." This must always be translated by kiu. Similarly, English sometimes leaves out the relative pronoun, as in "I saw the book you have." However, the relative pronoun is never omitted like this in Esperanto.

The relative pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. Whether it is in the accusative case or not depends upon its relation to its own verb or to other words in its own clause (called the relative clause):

The relative pronoun matches in number with its antecedent. Whether it is in the accusative case or not depends on its connection to its own verb or to other words in its own clause (called the relative clause):

La junuloj, kiuj venis, estas afablaj, the youths who came are amiable.
La personoj, kiujn li vidos, estas amikoj miaj, the persons (whom) he will see are friends of mine.
Mi kalkulis la gradon, kiun li ricevos, I calculated the grade (which) he will receive.
Mi memoras tiun aferon, pri kiu vi parolas, I remember that matter about which you speak.

The young people who came are friendly, the youths who came are amiable.
The people he will see are my friends, the persons (whom) he will see are friends of mine.
I calculated the grade he will get, I calculated the grade (which) he will receive.
I remember that thing you’re talking about, I remember that matter about which you speak.

147. Like English "whose" the genitive form kies of the interrogative pronoun (107) is also used as a relative, referring to a substantive (singular or plural) for its antecedent:

147. Similar to the English "whose," the genitive form kies of the interrogative pronoun (107) is also used as a relative, referring to a noun (singular or plural) for its antecedent:

Li estas la viro, kies libron vi trovis, he is the man whose book you found.
Mi konas la infanojn, kies patro estas amiko via, I know the children whose father is a friend of yours.

He’s the guy whose book you found, he is the man whose book you found.
I know the kids whose dad is a friend of yours, I know the children whose father is a friend of yours.

THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

148. The compound tense formed by combining the past participle with the future tense of the auxiliary verb esti represents an act or condition as having been already completed or perfected at a future time, and is called the future perfect tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

148. The compound tense created by joining the past participle with the future tense of the auxiliary verb esti shows that an action or state has already been completed or perfected at a future time, and it is referred to as the future perfect tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estos vidinta, I shall have seen (I shall be having-seen).
vi estos vidinta, you will have seen (you will be having-seen).
li (ŝi, ĝi) estos vidinta, he (she, it) will have seen (will be having-seen).
ni estos vidintaj, we shall have seen (shall be having-seen).
vi estos vidintaj, you will have seen (will be having-seen).
ili estos vidintaj, they will have seen (will be having-seen).

I will have seen, I'll have seen (I'll be having seen).
You will have seen, You'll have seen (you'll be having seen).
He (she, it) will have seen, He (she, it) will have seen (will be having seen).
We will have seen, We'll have seen (we'll be having seen).
You will have seen, You'll have seen (you'll be having seen).
They will have seen, They'll have seen (will be having seen).

ORDINAL NUMERALS.

149. Ordinal numerals are adjectives which answer the question "Which in order?" as "first", "third", etc. They are formed by adding the adjectival suffix -a to the cardinals. The various parts of an ordinal must be connected by hyphens, since it is to the entire cardinal, and not any part of it, that the adjective ending -a is attached:

149. Ordinal numbers are adjectives that answer the question "Which in order?" with terms like "first," "third," and so on. They are created by adding the adjectival suffix -a to the cardinal numbers. The different parts of an ordinal must be connected by hyphens because the adjective ending -a is attached to the whole cardinal number, not just a part of it:

unua, first.
dua, second.
tria, third.
oka, eighth.
dek-unua, eleventh.
dek-naŭa, nineteenth.
dudek-sepa, twenty-seventh.
kvardek-sesa, forty-sixth.
cent-okdek-kvina, hundred and eighty-fifth.
mil-okcent-kvara, one thousand eight hundred and fourth.
sesmil-sepa, six thousand and seventh.

Ordinal numerals may be abbreviated thus: la, 1st, 2a, 2nd, 3a, 3rd, 5a, 5th, 1912a, 1912th, 233a, 233rd, etc. If the ordinal number is used in an accusative construction, the abbreviation is given the accusative ending, as lan, 2an, 3an, 1912an, etc.

Ordinal numerals can be abbreviated like this: la, 1st, 2a, 2nd, 3a, 3rd, 5a, 5th, 1912a, 1912th, 233a, 233rd, etc. If the ordinal number appears in an accusative construction, the abbreviation takes the accusative ending, as in lan, 2an, 3an, 1912an, etc.

Vocabulary.
angl-a, English.
dezir-i, to desire.
dolar-o, dollar.
gajn-i, to win, to gain.
kost-i, to cost.
last-a, last.
latin-a, Latin.
mar-o, sea.
neces-a, necessary.
paf-i, to shoot.
pafark-o, bow (for shooting).
part-o, part, share.
pen-i, to strive, to try.
traduk-i, to translate.
sag-o, arrow.
sam-a, same.
ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA LIBRO.

Antaŭ pli multe ol mil jaroj vivis Alfredo Granda, unu el la plej interesaj personoj pri kiuj ni estas aŭdintaj. Li estis la unua angla reĝo, kiu deziris legi librojn. Li estis ankaŭ la lasta, kiu povis legi ilin, ĝis post multaj jaroj. Unu tagon, dum li estis malgranda knabo kun flavaj buklaj haroj, lia patrino, tre saĝa reĝino, montris al li kaj al liaj fratoj belegan libron. Ŝi diris ke la libro kostis multe da mono en lando trans la maro, kaj ke ĝi nun apartenas al ŝi. Si diris "Miaj filoj, mi donos ĉi tiun libron al tiu el vi, kiu lernos legi ĝin. Kiu el vi estos la unua, kiu povos legi? Tiu ricevos la libron." Nu, Alfredo komencis studi, kaj post ne longe li gajnis la belegan libron. Liaj fratoj eĉ ne penis gajni ĝin. Tiam oni tre malmulte pensis pri libroj. La reĝoj kaj iliaj filoj nur malofte povis legi, kaj treege malofte povis skribi. Oni laŭdis nur personojn, kiuj bone rajdis kaj batalis per sagoj kaj pafarkoj. Sed oni opiniis ke tute ne estis necese scii pri la aferoj, kiujn la libroj rakontas. Tial Alfredo ne ricevis laŭdon pro sia deziro por legi. La sesan aŭ sepan jaron post sia ricevo de la libro, Alfredo volis lerni la latinan lingvon, ĉar tiam oni skribis latine (in Latin) la librojn, kiuj estis plej bonaj. Oni serĉis ĝis la finoj de la lando, kaj iris multajn mejlojn, sed preskaŭ ne povis trovi personon, kiu eĉ estis aŭdinta pri tia lingvo. Fine oni trovis personon por helpi Alfredon, kiu tiam lernis la latinan lingvon. Tiu sama Alfredo estis reĝo multajn jarojn, kaj estis unu el la plej bonaj reĝoj, kiujn la angla lando estas havinta. Alfredo skribis librojn en la latina lingvo, kaj ankaŭ tradukis latinajn librojn en la anglan lingvon.

More than a thousand years ago, Alfred the Great lived, one of the most fascinating people we've heard about. He was the first English king who wanted to read books. He was also the last one who could read them for many years. One day, when he was a young boy with curly blonde hair, his mother, a very wise queen, showed him and his brothers a beautiful book. She said the book cost a lot of money in a country overseas and now belonged to her. She said, "My sons, I will give this book to the one of you who learns to read it. Who will be the first to read it? That one will get the book." Well, Alfred started studying, and before long, he earned the beautiful book. His brothers didn’t even try to win it. Back then, not many people thought much about books. Kings and their sons rarely knew how to read, and even more rarely could write. Only those who rode well and fought with bows and arrows were praised. It was thought that it wasn’t necessary at all to know about the things that books speak of. Therefore, Alfred didn’t receive any praise for his desire to read. Six or seven years after he received the book, Alfred wanted to learn Latin because the best books were written in Latin. They searched throughout the ends of the country and traveled many miles, but could hardly find anyone who had even heard of such a language. Finally, they found someone to help Alfred, who then learned Latin. That same Alfred was king for many years and was one of the best kings that England has ever had. Alfred wrote books in Latin and also translated Latin books into English.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. (To be written out in full): 37th, 59th, 73rd, 92nd, 846th, 119th, 1274th, 1910th, 14235th. 2. Before my friend will have finished that mansion (122), it will have cost twenty thousand dollars. 3. Before coming to visit you, I shall have ridden twelve miles on my horse. 4. The grade which you will have received in arithmetic soon after the first of March will be excellent. 5. You do not make mistakes very often in the lessons. 6. I shall try after a few minutes to translate that Latin book, for (ĉar) it seems interesting. 7. It is necessary to study Latin, for I desire to read the stories which are in my Latin book. 8. The one thousand nine hundred and fourth year was a leap-year. 9. The fourth year after that year was also a leap-year. 10. The 1912th year will be a leap-year. There are three hundred and sixty-six days in such a year. 12. Alfred won the book which his mother had bought. 13. Such a book now costs four or five hundred dollars. 14. Alfred the Great was the last king until many years afterward (until after many years) who could read or write. 15. He was the first king in that land who even wished to be able to read books. 16. We often talk about this same King Alfred, and say that he was the father of the English language. 17. People say so (diras tiel) because he translated Latin books into the language of his land, and because he also wrote books in that language.

1. (To be written out in full): 37th, 59th, 73rd, 92nd, 846th, 119th, 1274th, 1910th, 14235th. 2. By the time my friend finishes that mansion (122), it will have cost twenty thousand dollars. 3. Before I come to visit you, I will have ridden twelve miles on my horse. 4. The grade you get in arithmetic shortly after the first of March will be excellent. 5. You don’t make mistakes very often in the lessons. 6. I will try to translate that Latin book in a few minutes, because it seems interesting. 7. It’s necessary to study Latin, as I want to read the stories in my Latin book. 8. The year 1904 was a leap year. 9. The fourth year after that was also a leap year. 10. The year 1912 will be a leap year. There are three hundred and sixty-six days in such a year. 12. Alfred won the book his mother bought. 13. Such a book now costs four or five hundred dollars. 14. Alfred the Great was the last king for many years afterward who could read or write. 15. He was the first king in that land who even wanted to be able to read books. 16. We often talk about King Alfred, calling him the father of the English language. 17. People say this because he translated Latin books into his country’s language and wrote books in that language as well.

LESSON XXXII.
KIA AS A RELATIVE ADJECTIVE.

150. The interrogative adjective kia (112) is also used as a relative adjective, referring back to tia, or to some equivalent phrase or word indicating quality, such as sama, etc. In this use it may often be translated "as", or "which":

150. The question word kia (112) is also used as a relative adjective, referring back to tia, or to some equivalent phrase or word indicating quality, like sama, etc. In this context, it can often be translated as "as" or "which":

Mi havas tian libron, kian mi volas, I have such a (that kind of) book as (which kind) I wish.
Tiaj amikoj, kiajn vi havas, estas afablaj, such friends as (of which kind) you have are amiable.
Li deziras tian ĉapelon, kia kostas ses dolarojn, he desires that kind of hat which (kind) costs six dollars.
Mi havas la saman deziron, kian vi, I have the same desire as you (same kind which you have).

I have the kind of book that I want, I have such a book as I wish.
The friends you have are nice, the friends you have are amiable.
He wants that kind of hat that costs six dollars, he desires that kind of hat that costs six dollars.
I have the same desire as you do, I have the same desire as you.

KIE AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.

151. The interrogative adverb kie, kien (118) is also used as a relative adverb of place with tie, tien, or some other expression of place for its antecedent.

151. The question adverb kie, kien (118) is also used as a relative adverb of place with tie, tien, or some other expression of place for its reference.

Any interrogative adverb may also be used to introduce an indirect question, thus serving as a subordinating conjunction (cf. ĉu).

Any interrogative adverb can also introduce an indirect question, acting as a subordinating conjunction (cf. ĉu).

Kien is used when the verb in the relative clause expresses motion toward the place indicated, whether or not its antecedent has this ending. Similarly, kie may refer to tie or to tien:

Kien is used when the verb in the relative clause shows movement toward the specified place, regardless of whether its antecedent has this ending. Likewise, kie can refer to tie or tien:

Mi iros tien, kie vi estas, I shall go there where you are.
Mi estis tie, kien vi iros, I was there (at that place) where you will go.
Mi iros tien, kien vi iris, I shall go to that place to which you went (I shall go where you went).
Mi trovis lin en la urbo, kie li loĝas, I found him in the city where he lives.
Ĉu vi venos ĉi tien, kie ni estas? Are you coming here where we are?

I'll go to where you are, I shall go there where you are.
I was there where you will go, I was there (at that place) where you will go.
I will go to the place you went, I shall go to that place to which you went (I shall go where you went).
I found him in the city where he lives, I found him in the city where he lives.
Are you coming here where we are? Are you coming here where we are?

THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.

152. The future active participle, expressing what the word modified will do or is about to do, ends in -onta, as vidonta, about to see, ironta, about to go:

152. The future active participle, which indicates what the word it modifies will do or is about to do, ends in -onta, such as vidonta, about to see, ironta, about to go:

La forironta viro vokis sian serviston, the man going to depart (the about-to-depart man) called his servant.
La virino salutonta vin estas tre afabla, the woman about to greet you is very affable.
La venonta monato estas marto, the coming month is March.
La venontan semajnon mi foriros, the coming (next) week I shall depart.

The man about to leave called his servant, the man going to depart called his servant.
The woman who is going to greet you is very friendly, the woman about to greet you is very affable.
The next month is March, the coming month is March.
I will be leaving next week, the coming (next) week I shall depart.

THE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES.

153. The compound tenses formed by combining the future active participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of esti represent an act or state as about to occur in the present, past, or future, respectively, and are called periphrastic future tenses. Except when great accuracy is desired, these tenses are not often used. A synopsis of vidi in the first person singular and plural of these tenses is as follows:

153. The compound tenses created by combining the future active participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of esti indicate an action or state that is about to happen in the present, past, or future, respectively, and are referred to as periphrastic future tenses. These tenses aren't commonly used unless precise clarity is needed. A summary of vidi in the first person singular and plural for these tenses is as follows:

Present Periphrastic Future.
mi estas vidonta,
I am about to (going to) see.
ni estas vidontaj,
we are about to (going to) see.
Past Periphrastic Future.
mi estis vidonta,
I was about to (going to) see.
ni estis vidontaj,
we were about to (going to) see.
Future Periphrastic Future.
mi estos vidonta,
I shall be about to (going to) see.
ni estos vidontaj,
we shall be about to (going to) see.
THE SUFFIX -IND-.

154. The suffix -ind- is used to form words expressing worthy of, deserving of, that which is indicated in the root. It may also be used as a root, to form inda, worthy, malinda, unworthy, indo, worth, merit, etc.:

154. The suffix -ind- is used to create words that mean worthy of, deserving of, what the root indicates. It can also act as a root itself, leading to words like inda, worthy, malinda, unworthy, indo, worth, merit, and so on:

dezirinda, desirable.
laŭdinda, praiseworthy.
mallaŭdinda, blameworthy.
rimarkinda, noteworthy, remarkable.
ridinde, ridiculously, laughably.
tradukinda, worth translating.
Vocabulary.
ankoraŭ, still, yet.
atak-i, to attack.
bat-i, to beat.
cert-a, sure, certain.
defend-i, to defend.
difekt-i, to spoil.
edz-o, husband.
fajr-o, fire.
flar-i, to smell.
gast-o, guest.
ho! Oh!
kri-i, to exclaim, to cry.
kruel-a, cruel.
kuk-o, cake.
lign-o, wood.
suspekt-i, to suspect.

The adverb ankoraŭ expresses the ideas "until and during the present time", "in the future as now and before", "in constant or uniform succession", "in an increasing or additional degree", given sometimes by English yet, sometimes by still: Mi estas ankoraŭ sidanta ĉi tie, I am still sitting here. Li ankoraŭ ne venis, still he has not come (he has not come yet). Li ankoraŭ restos tie, he will still stay there. Ankoraŭ ili venas, still they come. Li estos ankoraŭ pli ruza, he will be still (yet) more crafty.

The adverb ankoraŭ conveys the meanings "up until now," "in the future like it is now and in the past," "in a consistent or uniform order," and "to a greater or additional extent," sometimes translated in English as yet and other times as still: Mi estas ankoraŭ sidanta ĉi tie, I am still sitting here. Li ankoraŭ ne venis, he still hasn't come (he hasn't come yet). Li ankoraŭ restos tie, he will still stay there. Ankoraŭ ili venas, they still come. Li estos ankoraŭ pli ruza, he will be even more crafty.

ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA KUKOJ.

Unu fojon antaŭ pli multe ol mil jaroj, soldatoj venis de trans la maro por ataki la anglan reĝon Alfredon Grandan. Ili nek konis nek malamis lin, sed ili sciis ke li estas persono kies landon ili deziras gajni. Ĉi tiuj malamikoj estis venintaj tiel subite ke Alfredo ne estis preta por defendi sian landon kontraŭ ili. Tial li forkuris kelkajn mejlojn de la urbo, kaj sin kaŝis en granda arbaro malantaŭ vilaĝo. Anstataŭ porti reĝajn vestojn li aĉetis tiajn ĉifonojn kiajn kamparanoj kaj malriĉuloj portas. Li loĝis ĉe malriĉa sed laŭdinda kamparano, kiu ne konis la reĝon, kaj tute ne suspektis kia persono lia gasto estas. Unu memorindan tagon Alfredo estis sidanta apud la fajro, kaj estis rigardanta siajn sagojn kaj pafarkon dum li pensis malĝoje pri sia lando. La edzino de la arbarano demandis "Ĉu vi ankoraŭ sidos tie dekkvin aŭ dudek minutojn?" "Jes," respondis la reĝo. Ŝi diris "Nu, estos necese fari pli varmegan fajron por tiaj kukoj kiajn mi nun estas bakonta. Ĉu vi gardos tiujn kukojn kiuj nun estas super la fajro, dum mi kolektos pli multe da ligno?" Alfredo respondis "Certe mi gardos ilin kontraŭ la fajro." La virino serĉonta lignon foriris en alian parton de la arbaro, kie estis multe da ligno, kaj la reĝo penis zorgi pri la kukoj. Sed baldaŭ li forgesis ilin, kaj la fajro ilin difektis. Kiam la virino venis kaj flaris la kukojn ŝi kriis "ho, vi riproĉinda viro! Kvankam vi ankoraŭ sidas tie, vi ne pensas pri la kukoj, kaj la fajro estas difektinta ilin!" Ŝi estis kruele batonta la reĝon, kiam li diris al ŝi kiu li estas, kaj kial li forgesis la kukojn. Tiam ŝi tre hontis, kaj anstataŭ mallaŭdi lin ŝi volis esti ankoraŭ pli bona al li.

Many centuries ago, soldiers came from across the sea to attack the English king Alfred the Great. They neither knew nor hated him, but they knew he was a person whose land they wanted to conquer. These enemies arrived so suddenly that Alfred was not prepared to defend his kingdom against them. So, he fled several miles from the city and hid in a large forest behind a village. Instead of wearing royal clothing, he bought the rags that farmers and the poor wear. He lived with a poor but honorable farmer who did not know the king and had no idea who his guest was. One memorable day, Alfred was sitting by the fire, looking at his arrows and bow while sadly thinking about his country. The farmer's wife asked, "Are you still going to sit there for fifteen or twenty minutes?" "Yes," the king replied. She said, "Well, I need to make a hotter fire for the cakes I’m baking right now. Will you watch those cakes that are over the fire while I gather more wood?" Alfred answered, "Of course, I’ll keep an eye on them." The woman went to another part of the forest, where there was plenty of wood, and the king tried to watch the cakes. But soon he forgot about them, and the fire burned them. When the woman came back and smelled the cakes, she cried, "Oh, you careless man! Even though you’re still sitting there, you’re not thinking about the cakes, and the fire has ruined them!" She was about to scold the king when he told her who he was and why he forgot about the cakes. Then she felt very ashamed, and instead of scolding him, she wanted to be even kinder to him.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Alfred the Great was a praiseworthy king who lived more than a thousand years ago. 2. People still talk about him because he not only translated many Latin books into the English language, but also wrote in English. 3. He wished to help the peasants still more. 4. But enemies often attacked him, and finally they conquered his soldiers. 5. Then they hastened to where (151) Alfred was. 6. They were about to attack him, when he rode away secretly (kaŝe) into a large forest. 7. There he dwelt some time in the house of a poor forester. 8. He wore such rags as a peasant usually wears, and did not tell the forester who he was. 9. One day he was sitting near the fire and wondering, "Will the enemy have conquered my soldiers next week?" 10. The forester's wife said, "Will you sit there yet a while and take-care of those cakes? I am about to gather more wood." 11. He replied, "Certainly, I will try to help you." 12. But when after a few minutes the woman smelled the cakes, she knew that the fire had spoiled them. 13. She exclaimed "Oh, what a blame-worthy man!" 14. She commenced to beat the king cruelly, but he did not defend himself. 15. Instead (120), he told her who he was.

1. Alfred the Great was an admirable king who lived over a thousand years ago. 2. People still talk about him because he not only translated many Latin books into English but also wrote in English. 3. He wanted to do even more to help the common people. 4. But enemies frequently attacked him, and eventually, they defeated his soldiers. 5. Then they rushed to where Alfred was. 6. They were about to attack him when he sneaked away into a large forest. 7. There, he lived for a while in the home of a poor woodcutter. 8. He wore rags like a peasant usually does and didn’t tell the woodcutter who he was. 9. One day, he sat near the fire, wondering, "Will the enemy have beaten my soldiers by next week?" 10. The woodcutter's wife said, "Will you stay there for a bit and watch the cakes? I'm going to gather more wood." 11. He answered, "Of course, I'll try to help you." 12. But after a few minutes, when the woman smelled the cakes, she realized that the fire had burned them. 13. She exclaimed, "Oh, what a useless man!" 14. She started to scold the king harshly, but he didn’t defend himself. 15. Instead, he told her who he was.

LESSON XXXIII.
KIAM AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.

155. The interrogative temporal adverb kiam (123) is also used as a relative temporal adverb, with tiam or an equivalent word or phrase for its antecedent. (It may not be omitted as in English "at the time he came"):

155. The questioning time adverb kiam (123) is also used as a relative time adverb, along with tiam or a similar word or phrase for its antecedent. (It can't be omitted like in English "at the time he came"):

Mi suspektis lin je la tempo kiam li venis, I suspected him at the time when he came (the time that he came).
Li defendis sin tiam, kiam oni atakis lin, he defended himself then, when he was attacked.
Mi ankoraŭ sidos tie ĝis kiam vi venos, I shall still sit there until when you come (until you come).
Post kiam li tiel laŭte kriis, li komencis plori, after he shouted so loudly, he began to cry.

I suspected him when he showed up, I suspected him at the time when he came (the time that he came).
He defended himself when he was attacked, he defended himself then, when he was attacked.
I will still be sitting there until you arrive, I shall still sit there until when you come (until you come).
After he yelled so loudly, he started to cry, after he shouted so loudly, he began to cry.

KIEL AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.

156. The interrogative adverb kiel (134) is also used as a relative adverb of manner and degree, with tiel, or same, or an equivalent adverb or phrase for its antecedent. It may often be translated "as:"

156. The question word kiel (134) is also used as a relative adverb of manner and degree, along with tiel, or same, or a similar adverb or phrase referring to its antecedent. It can often be translated as "as:"

Mi defendis min tiel, kiel li defendis sin, I defended myself in that way in which (way) he defended himself.
Vi ne estas tiel kruela kiel li, you are not so cruel as he (is).
Ili batis lin same kiel vi, they beat him in the same way as you (did).
Ili batis lin same kiel vin, they beat him the same as (they did) you.
Kiel mi diris al li, mi estas feliĉa, as I told him, I am happy (antecedent not expressed).
Li parolis tiel mallaŭte kiel antaŭe, he spoke as softly as before.
Ŝi estas tiel bona kiel ŝi estas bela, she is as good as she is fair.

I defended myself the way he defended himself, I defended myself in that way in which (way) he defended himself.
You are not as cruel as he is, you are not so cruel as he (is).
They beat him just like you, they beat him in the same way as you (did).
They beat him the same way they beat you, they beat him the same as (they did) you.
As I told him, I am happy, as I told him, I am happy (antecedent not expressed).
He spoke as softly as he did before, he spoke as softly as before.
She is as good as she is beautiful, she is as good as she is fair.

NUMERAL NOUNS AND ADVERBS.

157. Nouns may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending -o. After such nouns the preposition da or de is used:

157. You can create nouns from the cardinal numbers by adding the ending -o. After these nouns, the preposition da or de is used:

dekduo, a dozen.
dudeko, a score.
deko, a ten, half a score.
cento, a hundred.
milo, a thousand.
unuo, a unit.
kvaro, a four, a quartette.
trio, a three, a trio.

The prepositions da and de follow nouns (99, 100) or adverbs (101), while el follows adjectives in the superlative degree (75), cardinal numerals (138), and the pronouns tiu, kiu (106), etc.: dekduo da ovoj, a dozen (of) eggs. dekduo de la ovoj, a dozen of the eggs. dek du el tiuj ovoj, twelve of those eggs. kiu el la ovoj? which one of the eggs? tiu el la ovoj, that one of the eggs. la plej freŝa el la ovoj, the freshest of the eggs.

The prepositions da and de come after nouns (99, 100) or adverbs (101), while el follows adjectives in the superlative form (75), cardinal numbers (138), and the pronouns tiu, kiu (106), etc.: dekduo da ovoj, a dozen (of) eggs. dekduo de la ovoj, a dozen of the eggs. dek du el tiuj ovoj, twelve of those eggs. kiu el la ovoj? which one of the eggs? tiu el la ovoj, that one of the eggs. la plej freŝa el la ovoj, the freshest of the eggs.

158. Adverbs may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending -e:

158. You can create adverbs from cardinal numbers by adding the ending -e:

unue, firstly, at first.
due, secondly, in the second place.
kvine, fifthly, in the fifth place.
deke, tenthly.
sesdeke, sixtiethly.
okdek-kvare, eighty-fourthly.
WORD DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS.

159. Adjectives, verbs and nouns, as well as adverbs (120), may be derived from prepositions by addition of the formative endings (116), with sometimes a special suffix also:

159. Adjectives, verbs, nouns, and adverbs (120) can be created from prepositions by adding formative endings (116), sometimes with an extra suffix as well:

anstataŭi, to replace, to take the place of.
anstataŭulo, a substitute.
antaŭa, previous, preceding.
apuda, near, contiguous, adjacent.
ĉirkaŭi, to surround, to encircle.
ĉirkaŭo, a circuit, a circumference.
kontraŭa, adverse, opposite, contrary.
kontraŭulo, adversary, opponent.
kunulo, comrade, companion.
superi, to surpass, to exceed, to be above.
superege, surpassingly, exceedingly.

anstataŭi, to replace, to take the place of.
anstataŭulo, a substitute.
antaŭa, previous, preceding.
apuda, near, adjacent, next to.
ĉirkaŭi, to surround, to encircle.
ĉirkaŭo, a circuit, a circumference.
kontraŭa, adverse, opposite, contrary.
kontraŭulo, opponent, adversary.
kunulo, comrade, companion.
superi, to surpass, to exceed, to be above.
superege, exceedingly, surpassingly.

Vocabulary.
adiaŭ, farewell, goodbye.
akcept-i, to accept, to receive.
elekt-i, to choose, to select.
fest-i, to celebrate, to entertain.
gant-o, glove.
ĝentil-a, courteous.
invit-i, to invite.
ĵus, just, at the moment.
kuz-o, cousin.
malgraŭ, notwithstanding.
par-o, pair.
pend-i, to hang.
prez-o, price.
renkont-i, to meet.
ŝu-o, shoe.
uz-i, to use.

The adverb ĵus indicates the elapsing of the least possible time since the act or condition indicated, or between the two acts or conditions indicated. Ni ĵus venis, we just came (we came but a moment ago). Mi havas la saman opinion kian vi ĵus diris, I have the same opinion as you just gave (said). Mi vidis lin ĵus kiam li estis forironta, I saw him just when he was about to depart. Ĵus kiam vi venis li foriris, just as you came he went away.

The adverb ĵus indicates the shortest amount of time that has passed since the act or condition mentioned, or between the two acts or conditions mentioned. Ni ĵus venis, we just came (we came just a moment ago). Mi havas la saman opinion kian vi ĵus diris, I share the same opinion as you just expressed (said). Mi vidis lin ĵus kiam li estis forironta, I saw him just as he was about to leave. Ĵus kiam vi venis li foriris, just as you arrived he left.

LA INVITO.

Hieraŭ matene mia kuzo vizitis ĉe ni, kaj invitis min al malgranda festo kiu okazos morgaŭ vespere. Tiam li festos la lastan tagon de la jaro. Li diris ke la gastoj sidos ĉirkaŭ la fajrejo kaj rakontos rakontojn ĝis malfrua horo. Mi akceptis lian ĝentilan inviton, kaj diris ke mi certe venos. Mia kuzo loĝas en la sama urbo kie nia familio loĝas, sed en alia parto. Lia hejmo estas preskaŭ du mejlojn de la nia. Tamen, ni estas bonaj kunuloj, kaj ofte promenas kune. Ĵus kiam li estis elironta el la pordo hieraŭ, mi uzis la okazon (opportunity) por proponi mallongan promenon. Li respondis ke li ĝoje promenos kun mi, malgraŭ la neĝa vetero. Tial ni formarŝis tien, kie la stratoj estis malplej kotaj. La kuzo havas dek ok jarojn, sed mi estas preskaŭ tiel alta kiel li. Mi estas certa ke mi estas ankaŭ tiel forta kiel li. Ni parolis pri multaj interesaj aferoj, kaj bonege nin amuzis, ĝis kiam estis necese hejmen iri. La kuzo diris "adiaŭ," kaj iris rekte hejmen, sed mi iris al granda butiko. Unue, mi volis aĉeti paron da novaj gantoj, por anstataŭi la malnovajn gantojn kiujn mi ankoraŭ estis portanta, kvankam mi aĉetis ilin antaŭ tri monatoj. Due, mi bezonis paron da novaj ŝuoj. Mi iris en la butikon kie pendis tiaj gantoj, kiajn mi ŝatas, kaj oni tuj venis por renkonti min, kaj demandis "Kiajn vestojn vi volas aĉeti?" Oni montris al mi preskaŭ dudekon da paroj da gantoj. Mi elektis tre bonan paron, kaj estis ĵus aĉetonta ilin, malgraŭ la tro granda prezo, kiam mi vidis alian pli belan paron. Tial mi aĉetis ĉi tiun, kaj poste mi rigardis la ŝuojn. Mi trovis rimarkinde bonan paron, ĉar estas centoj da ŝuoj en tiu butiko. Mi tuj aĉetis tiun paron, kaj tiam hejmen iris.

Yesterday morning, my cousin visited us and invited me to a small party happening tomorrow evening. He’ll be celebrating the last day of the year. He mentioned that the guests will sit around the fireplace and share stories until late at night. I gladly accepted his kind invitation and said I would definitely come. My cousin lives in the same city where our family does, but in another part. His home is almost two miles away from ours. Still, we are good friends and often take walks together. Just as he was about to leave through the door yesterday, I seized the opportunity to suggest a short walk. He happily agreed to walk with me, despite the snowy weather. So we headed to the streets that were the least muddy. My cousin is eighteen years old, but I’m almost as tall as he is. I’m sure I’m just as strong as he is too. We talked about many interesting things and had a great time until it was necessary to head home. My cousin said "goodbye," and went straight home, but I went to a department store. First, I wanted to buy a new pair of gloves to replace the old ones I had been wearing, even though I bought them three months ago. Secondly, I needed a new pair of shoes. I went into the store where the gloves I like were hanging, and someone immediately came to assist me, asking, "What kind of clothing do you want to buy?" They showed me almost twenty pairs of gloves. I chose a really nice pair and was just about to buy them, despite the high price, when I saw another more beautiful pair. So I bought that one instead and then looked at the shoes. I found a remarkably good pair since there are hundreds of shoes in that store. I bought that pair right away, and then headed home.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. My friend likes to live in the city, but his wife prefers to live in their little wooden house in the country. 2. There she can see and smell the flowers, and can take (fari) long walks in the adjacent fields and forest. 3. There are often hundreds of persons in a village, but there are thousands of persons in a city. 4. The larger a city is, the larger and better its stores are. 5. In the second place, one can buy better bread, vegetables and cake in the city. 6. Thirdly, one can also find better gloves, hats and shoes there, and the price is often less. 7. Therefore I make use of the opportunity when I go to the city, and usually buy a pair of new gloves. 8. I am still wearing a pair of gloves which the rain spoiled. 9. Notwithstanding their ugly color, they are still thick and good. 10. But soon I shall buy such a pair as (150) is hanging in the window of that store. 11. The price is low, and I need a new pair now, for my cousin has invited me to a small party (festo) at his house. 12. I accepted his invitation courteously, and said that I would gladly be his guest. 13. We are good comrades, although he is younger than I am. 14. My (girl) cousin, his sister, is older than he is, but he is as tall as she. 15. I was just about to send a letter to him at the minute that (155) he knocked on our door. 16. His visit will take the place of (159) my letter. 17. Just as (just when) he was going away, I said goodbye to him, and said that I would meet him in the park tomorrow. 18. I think that we shall have a pleasant walk, although the weather is still remarkably cold, the same as (156) it was two or three months ago.

1. My friend loves living in the city, but his wife prefers their little wooden house in the country. 2. There, she can see and smell the flowers and take long walks in the nearby fields and forest. 3. A village usually has hundreds of people, while a city has thousands. 4. The bigger a city is, the larger and better its stores are. 5. Additionally, you can buy better bread, vegetables, and cakes in the city. 6. Also, you can find better gloves, hats, and shoes there, often at lower prices. 7. That's why I take the chance to go to the city and usually buy a new pair of gloves. 8. I'm still using a pair of gloves that got ruined by the rain. 9. Despite their ugly color, they're still thick and sturdy. 10. But soon, I plan to buy a pair like the ones hanging in that store window. 11. The price is low, and I need a new pair now since my cousin invited me to a small party at his house. 12. I graciously accepted his invitation and said I would be glad to join him. 13. We're good friends, even though he’s younger than I am. 14. My female cousin, his sister, is older than he is, but he is as tall as she is. 15. I was just about to send him a letter when he knocked on our door. 16. His visit will replace my letter. 17. Just as he was leaving, I said goodbye and told him I would meet him in the park tomorrow. 18. I believe we'll have a pleasant walk, although the weather is still surprisingly cold, just like it was two or three months ago.

LESSON XXXIV.
PREPOSITIONS AS PREFIXES.

160. Any preposition may be used as a prefix to a verb, provided the resulting compound is intelligible. A few prepositional compounds are given below, only verbs being shown, although nouns, adjectives and adverbs may be formed from these (116):

160. Any preposition can be used as a prefix to a verb, as long as the resulting compound makes sense. Below are a few examples of prepositional compounds, showing only the verbs, even though nouns, adjectives, and adverbs can also be formed from these (116):

alveni, to arrive.
aldoni, to add.
antaŭdiri, to predict.
ĉirkaŭpreni, to embrace.
ĉeesti, to be present.
dependi, to hang from, to depend.
demeti, to lay aside.
depreni, to subtract.
enhavi, to contain.
eliri, to go out.
interparoli, to converse.
kontraŭdiri, to contradict.
kunlabori, to collaborate.
kunveni, to assemble.
priskribi, to describe.
subteni, to support.
surmeti, to put on.
traguti, to percolate.
travidi, to see through
transiri, to cross.

Like English "out" the preposition el often develops in composition a secondary sense of "thoroughly" or "completely" (cf. "I am tired out"): eltrovi, to find out, to discover. elpensi, to think out, to invent. ellabori, to work out, to elaborate. ellerni, to learn thoroughly, to master. eluzi, to use completely, to wear out (transitive).

Like the English word "out," the preposition el often takes on a secondary meaning of "thoroughly" or "completely" when combined with other words (e.g., "I am tired out"): eltrovi, to find out, to discover. elpensi, to think out, to invent. ellabori, to work out, to elaborate. ellerni, to learn thoroughly, to master. eluzi, to use completely, to wear out (transitive).

THE SUFFIX -EBL-.

161. The suffix -ebl- is used to form adjectives, adverbs, etc., expressing the likelihood or possibility of that which is indicated by the root. It may be used as a root, to form ebla, possible, etc.

161. The suffix -ebl- is used to create adjectives, adverbs, and so on, indicating the likelihood or possibility of what the root suggests. It can also function as a root to form ebla, possible, etc.

eltrovebla, discoverable.
legebla, legible.
manĝebla, edible.
rompebla, breakable.
videbla, visible.
travidebla, transparent.

The suffix -ebl- is often equivalent to the English suffixes -able, -ible, but these suffixes have other meanings also, as in "readable," worth reading (leginda), "lovable," deserving of love (aminda), etc.

The suffix -ebl- is typically similar to the English suffixes -able and -ible, but these suffixes can have other meanings as well, like in "readable," worthy of being read (leginda), "lovable," worthy of love (aminda), and so on.

EXPRESSION OF THE HIGHEST DEGREE POSSIBLE.

162. The adverb plej, most (74), modified by kiel eble (as possible), is used to express the highest degree possible:

162. The adverb plej, most (74), modified by kiel eble (as possible), is used to express the highest degree possible:

Ĝi estas kiel eble plej bona, it is the best possible.
Ni estos kiel eble plej saĝaj, we shall be as wise as possible.
Li uzis kiel eble plej malmulte, he used the least possible.
Mi skribis kiel eble plej legeble, I wrote as legibly as possible.

It's the best it can be, it is the best possible.
We'll be as wise as we can, we shall be as wise as possible.
He used as little as he could, he used the least possible.
I wrote as clearly as I could, I wrote as legibly as possible.

TITLES AND TERMS OF ADDRESS.

163. The words sinjoro, gentleman, sinjorino, lady, fraŭlino, miss, are used like English Mr., Mrs., Miss, before proper names, and are also used as terms of address, without being followed by the name: Adiaŭ, Sinjoro. Adiaŭ, Sinjorino, Goodbye (Sir). Goodbye, Madam.

163. The words sinjoro, gentleman, sinjorino, lady, and fraŭlino, miss are used like the English Mr., Mrs., and Miss before proper names, and they can also be used as forms of address without being followed by a name: Adiaŭ, Sinjoro. Adiaŭ, Sinjorino, Goodbye (Sir). Goodbye, Madam.

Fraŭlino B——, ĉu vi konas tiun sinjoron kun Sinjorino C——? Miss B——, do you know that gentleman with Mrs. C——?
Mi ne konas tiun fraŭlinon, I do not know that young lady.
Kien vi volas iri, Fraŭlino? Where do you wish to go (Miss)?
Sinjoro A—— estas tre afabla, Mr. A—— is very amiable.

Miss B——, do you know that man with Mrs. C——? Miss B——, do you know that gentleman with Mrs. C——?
I don't know that young lady, I do not know that young lady.
Where do you want to go, Miss? Where do you wish to go (Miss)?
Mr. A—— is very nice, Mr. A—— is very amiable.

Cf. English Doctor, Professor, Madam, as terms of address, and also German Mein Herr, gnädige Frau, gnädiges Fräulein, French Monsieur, Mademoiselle, Spanish, Señor, Señora, Italian Signore, etc.

Cf. English Doctor, Professor, Madam, as terms of address, and also German Mein Herr, gnädige Frau, gnädiges Fräulein, French Monsieur, Mademoiselle, Spanish, Señor, Señora, Italian Signore, etc.

Vocabulary.
atent-a, attentive.
aŭskult-i, to listen.
babil-i, to chatter.
doktor-o, doctor.
fraŭl-o, bachelor.
gaj-a, merry, gay.
grup-o, group.
onkl-o, uncle.
san-a, in good health.
sent-i, to feel.
sinjor-o, gentleman.
ŝtup-o, step (of stairs).
tas-o, cup.
vojaĝ-o, voyage, journey.
ĈE LA FESTO.

Hieraŭ vespere mi iris al la hejmo de mia kuzo, kiu estis invitinta min al malgranda festo ĉe li. Ĉar mi deziris alveni kiel eble plej frue, mi foriris de mia loĝejo kiel eble plej baldaŭ, malgraŭ la neĝa vetero. Mi estis surmetinta paron da dikaj gantoj, kaj mi portis dikajn ŝuojn. Mi ankaŭ havis mian ombrelon, kvankam pro la vento mi ne povis uzi tiun. Tuj kiam mi supreniris la ŝtuparon ĉe la hejmo de la kuzo, li aŭdis min, kaj venis por malfermi la pordon kaj akcepti min. "Bonan vesperon, kia estas via sano?" li diris. Mi respondis "Mi sanas bonege, dankon," kaj eniris la domon kun li. Ni supren iris per granda ŝtuparo al ĉambro kie mi lasis la ĉapelon, gantojn kaj ombrelon, tiam ni malsupren venis kaj eniris la salonon. Mi salutis la onklinon, kiu afable parolis al mi, kaj ankaŭ la du kuzinojn. Unu kuzino estis ĵus priskribonta interesan libron, kiun ŝi antaŭ ne longe tralegis, kiam la aliaj gastoj komencis alveni. Sinjoro B—— ĉeestis, kaj Doktoro C——, kun sia filino Fraŭlino Mario, kaj multe da aliaj sinjoroj kaj sinjorinoj. La gastoj sidis aŭ staris en malgrandaj grupoj, kaj interparolis kun videbla plezuro. Unu rakontis pri vojaĝo, kaj tiam oni komencis priparoli la prezojn de aferoj en aliaj landoj. Mi atente aŭskultis kelkajn minutojn, kaj tiam foriris al alia grupo, kie oni gaje babilis pri estontaj (future) promenoj kaj festoj. Post unu aŭ du horoj, la servistinoj alportis al ni bonan malgrandan manĝon, kune kun tasoj da bonega kafo. Fine, je malfrua horo ni ĝentile dankis la familion de mia kuzo, kaj diris adiaŭ. Tiam ni foriris hejmen, kun sentoj da granda plezuro pro la agrabla festo.

Last night, I went to my cousin's house, who had invited me to a small party. Wanting to arrive as early as possible, I left my place as soon as I could, despite the snowy weather. I had put on a pair of thick gloves and was wearing heavy shoes. I also carried my umbrella, although I couldn’t use it because of the wind. As soon as I climbed the stairs at my cousin's house, he heard me and came to open the door and welcome me. "Good evening, how is your health?" he asked. I replied, "I'm feeling great, thank you," and went inside with him. We went up a large staircase to a room where I left my hat, gloves, and umbrella, then we came down and entered the living room. I greeted my aunt, who kindly spoke to me, as well as my two cousins. One cousin was just about to describe an interesting book she had recently read when the other guests began to arrive. Mr. B—— was there, along with Dr. C—— and his daughter Miss Mario, and many other gentlemen and ladies. The guests sat or stood in small groups, chatting with evident pleasure. One person was telling a story about a trip, and then the conversation shifted to the prices of things in other countries. I listened attentively for a few minutes, then moved to another group where they were cheerfully discussing upcoming walks and parties. After an hour or two, the maids brought us a nice little meal, along with cups of excellent coffee. Finally, at a late hour, we politely thanked my cousin’s family and said goodbye. Then we headed home, feeling a great sense of pleasure from the delightful party.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. There are dozens of edible fruits, but the fruits of hundreds of trees are not at all (tute ne estas) edible. 2. The transparent cup and plate upon the table are very breakable. 3. I predict that you will break them as soon as you seize them. 4. That letter is worth reading. 5. But it is difficult to read it, for it is not very legible. 6. It is from my uncle, who wishes to arrive at-our-house as early as possible. 7. He is still in the city, but soon he will be here, and will go up the steps (ŝtuparon) of our porch and knock on the door. 8. There are very few persons who contradict his opinions. 9. His opinions, however, are worthy of attention (154) and usually I listen courteously while he is talking. 10. Now, however, I prefer to listen to the group of ladies in the adjacent room. 11. They are chattering gaily, and listening to the young lady who is about to sing. 12. Madam, do you feel the wind? I notice that it is blowing the curtains which hang before that window. 13. I will close the window, because I am not very well (sana) today. 14. Is that gentleman across the room a bachelor? 15. Yes. He is describing a voyage and the people whom he met.

1. There are many edible fruits, but the fruits of hundreds of trees are not at all edible. 2. The transparent cup and plate on the table are very fragile. 3. I bet you'll break them as soon as you grab them. 4. That letter is worth reading. 5. But it's hard to read it because it’s not very clear. 6. It’s from my uncle, who wants to get to our house as soon as possible. 7. He’s still in the city, but he’ll be here soon and will walk up the steps of our porch and knock on the door. 8. Very few people disagree with his opinions. 9. His opinions, however, deserve attention, and I usually listen politely while he talks. 10. Right now, though, I prefer to listen to the group of ladies in the next room. 11. They’re chatting happily and listening to the young lady who is about to sing. 12. Madam, do you feel the wind? I notice it’s blowing the curtains hanging in front of that window. 13. I’ll close the window because I’m not feeling very well today. 14. Is that gentleman across the room a bachelor? 15. Yes. He’s describing a trip and the people he met.

LESSON XXXV.
KIOM AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.

164. The interrogative adverb kiom (140) is used as a relative adverb of quantity, with tiom or some equivalent word or phrase for its antecedent. In this use it is commonly translated "as":

164. The question word kiom (140) acts as a relative adverb of quantity, paired with tiom or a similar word or phrase for its reference. In this context, it is usually translated as "as":

La taso enhavis tiom da kafo, kiom mi povis trinki, the cup contained as much coffee as I could drink.
Mi havos tiom da tempo, kiom mi bezonos, I shall have as much time as I shall need.
Li sendis tiom, kiom vi volis, he sent as much as you wished.

The cup had as much coffee as I could drink, the cup contained as much coffee as I could drink.
I will have as much time as I need, I shall have as much time as I shall need.
He sent as much as you wanted, he sent as much as you wished.

THE PRESENT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.

165. The present passive participle (for the present active participle see 108), expressing that which is undergone by the person or thing indicated by the word modified, ends in -ata, as vidata, being seen:

165. The present passive participle (for the present active participle see 108), indicating what is experienced by the person or thing described by the modified word, ends in -ata, like vidata, being seen:

The verb iri, to go, used to illustrate the active participles (108, 119, 152), cannot be used to illustrate a passive participle, since passive participles can be made from transitive verbs (22) only.

The verb iri, to go, used to show the active participles (108, 119, 152), cannot be used to demonstrate a passive participle, since passive participles can only be made from transitive verbs (22) only.

La laŭdata knabo estas feliĉa, the boy being praised is happy.
Mi serĉos la deziratan libron, I shall look for the desired book.
La vestoj farataj por vi estas belaj, the clothes being made for you are beautiful.

The praised boy is happy, the boy being praised is happy.
I will look for the book you want, I shall look for the desired book.
The clothes being made for you are beautiful, the clothes being made for you are beautiful.

FRACTIONS.

166. Fractions are formed from the cardinals by the use of the suffix -on- followed by the ending -o. Adjectives and adverbs may be derived from these by use of the endings -a or -e:

166. Fractions are created from the cardinal numbers by adding the suffix -on- followed by the ending -o. Adjectives and adverbs can be formed from these using the endings -a or -e:

La duono de ses estas tri, the half of six is three.
Li estis nur duone atenta, he was only half attentive.
La triona parto de ses estas du, the third part of six is two.
Dek unu dekduonoj, eleven twelfths.
Mi dudekone finis la laboron, I one-twentieth finished the work.

The half of six is three, the half of six is three.
He was only half attentive, he was only half attentive.
The third part of six is two, the third part of six is two.
Eleven twelfths, eleven twelfths.
I finished the work one-twentieth, I one-twentieth finished the work.

DESCRIPTIVE COMPOUNDS.

167. A compound word whose first element modifies the second in an adjectival or adverbial relation is called a descriptive compound. The final -a or -e of the first element may be omitted, unless the resulting combination would be ambiguous or harsh-sounding.

167. A compound word where the first part modifies the second in an adjectival or adverbial way is called a descriptive compound. The final -a or -e of the first part can be dropped, unless the new combination would be unclear or sound awkward.

a. When the first element is adverbial (an adverb or preposition), the second element may be either an adverb or adjective:

a. When the first part is adverbial (an adverb or preposition), the second part can be either an adverb or an adjective:

multekosta, expensive.
duonkolere, half angrily.
nevidebla, invisible.
nevole, involuntarily.
ruĝflava (ruĝeflava), reddish yellow.
survoje, on the way, en route.
antaŭhieraŭ, day before yesterday.
postmorgaŭ, day after tomorrow.

multekosta, costly.
duonkolere, partially annoyed.
nevidebla, unseen.
nevole, unwillingly.
ruĝflava (ruĝeflava), yellowish red.
survoje, on the way.
antaŭhieraŭ, two days ago.
postmorgaŭ, two days from now.

b. An adjective may be used for the first element, if the second is an adverb or adjective derived from a noun-root:

b. An adjective can be used for the first element if the second is an adverb or an adjective derived from a noun-root:

samtempa, contemporaneous.
unufoje, once, one time.
trifoje, thrice, three times.
unutaga, one day's, of one day.
unuataga, the first day's.
frutempe, at an early time.

samtempa, contemporary.
unufoje, once, one time.
trifoje, three times.
unutaga, of one day.
unuataga, the first day.
frutempe, early on.

c. A noun may be used for the second element, if the resulting word has not merely unity of form, but also unity of meaning with a slightly different sense from that expressed by the noun and adjective uncombined:

c. A noun can be used as the second element if the resulting word has not only a shared form but also a shared meaning, with a slightly different sense from what the noun and adjective express when they are separate:

In national languages a change of accent often accompanies such change in meaning, as bla'ckberry (not black be'rry), blu'ebird (not blue bi'rd), swee'theart (not sweet hea'rt), German ju'ngfrau, virgin (not jung frau', young woman), etc.

In national languages, a change in accent often comes with a change in meaning, like bla'ckberry (not black be'rry), blu'ebird (not blue bi'rd), swee'theart (not sweet hea'rt), German ju'ngfrau, virgin (not jung frau', young woman), etc.

bonveno, a welcome (not "bona veno", a good coming).
libertempo, a vacation, leisure (not "libera tempo", free time).
superjaro, leap-year (not "super jaro", above a year).
bondeziroj, good wishes, felicitations (not "bonaj deziroj", good desires).
plimulto, a majority (adverb and noun combined).

bonveno, a welcome (not "bona veno", a good coming).
libertempo, a vacation, leisure (not "libera tempo", free time).
superjaro, leap-year (not "super jaro", above a year).
bondeziroj, good wishes, greetings (not "bonaj deziroj", good desires).
plimulto, a majority (adverb and noun combined).

Vocabulary.
ĥin-o, Chinaman.
jam, already.
kler-a, enlightened, learned.
komerc-o, trade, commerce.
lanc-o, spear, lance.
liber-a, free.
metod-o, method, way.
naci-o, nation.
paĝ-o, page.
pres-i, to print.
pulv-o, gunpowder.
ŝanĝ-i, to change.
te-o, tea.
ted-a, tiresome, tedious.

The adverb jam indicates a change from some preceding action or state to the different one expressed in the sentence, clause or phrase containing jam. It may often be translated "yet," "now," etc. Mi jam vidis lin, I already saw (have already seen) him. Ĉu vi jam trovis ĝin? Ne, mi ankoraŭ ne trovis ĝin. Have you yet (have you already) found it? No, I have not yet (still not) found it. Li jam ne vivas, he no longer lives (he already is-not-alive). Jam ne neĝas, it is not snowing now (already not snowing).

The adverb jam indicates a shift from a previous action or state to a different one expressed in the sentence, clause, or phrase containing jam. It can often be translated as "yet," "now," etc. Mi jam vidis lin, I already saw (have already seen) him. Ĉu vi jam trovis ĝin? Ne, mi ankoraŭ ne trovis ĝin. Have you yet (have you already) found it? No, I have not yet (still not) found it. Li jam ne vivas, he no longer lives (he already is-not-alive). Jam ne neĝas, it is not snowing now (already not snowing).

LA ĤINOJ.

Antaŭ miloj da jaroj la ĥinoj estis la plej klera nacio en la mondo. Dum aliaj nacioj ankoraŭ ne konis metodojn por presi librojn, kaj ankoraŭ faris ilin skribe, la samtempaj ĥinoj jam estis forlasintaj tiun multekostan kaj tedan metodon. Ili jam estis presantaj la paĝojn de miloj da libroj. Aliaj nacioj tiam estis batalantaj kiel eble plej kruele, per sago kaj pafarko, kaj per lanco. Sed ili ankoraŭ ne havis pafilojn, ĉar pulvo estis tute nekonata al ili. Tamen la ĥinoj jam bone konis metodojn por fari kaj por uzi pulvon, kaj faris tiajn amuzajn flavruĝajn fajrojn, kiajn ni ankoraŭ hodiaŭ aĉetas de ili, por uzi je festaj tagoj. Sed la ĥinoj ne multe ŝatis la komercon, kaj ne deziris aĉeti aŭ lerni de aliaj nacioj. Ili ankoraŭ nun havas la samajn metodojn por presi librojn kaj por fari pulvon, kiajn ili havis antaŭ mil jaroj. Ili malofte ŝanĝas siajn kutimojn. Tial la aliaj nacioj, kiuj antaŭe ne estis tiel kleraj, antaŭeniras pli rapide ol la ĥinoj. La lando de la ĥinoj enhavas tiom da personoj, kiom tri aŭ kvar aliaj nacioj. Granda parto de tiu lando estas ankoraŭ nekonata al okcidentaj nacioj, kvankam plej multe da nia teo elvenas el la ĥina lando. Oni diras ke la parolata lingvo kaj la skribata lingvo de la ĥinoj estas du tre malsamaj aferoj. La lingvo estas almenaŭ treege malfacila, kaj post kiam oni estas longe studinta ĝin, oni tamen estas nur duone lerninta ĝin. Mi ĝojas tial ke la lingvoj studataj en la lernejoj de nia lando ne estas tiel malfacilaj kiel la ĥina lingvo. La latina kaj germana lingvoj estas sufiĉe malfacilaj, kvankam ili estas tre interesaj kaj ankaŭ konataj de la kleruloj en multaj landoj. La latina lingvo jam ne estas parolata lingvo.

Thousands of years ago, the Chinese were the most educated nation in the world. While other nations still didn't know how to print books and were writing them by hand, the contemporary Chinese had already moved on from that expensive and tedious method. They were already printing the pages of thousands of books. Other nations at the time were fighting as brutally as possible, using arrows and bows, and spears. But they still didn't have guns, as gunpowder was completely unknown to them. However, the Chinese already had a good understanding of how to make and use gunpowder, creating those fun yellow-red fireworks that we still buy from them for holidays today. But the Chinese didn't care much for trade and didn't want to buy or learn from other nations. They still have the same methods for printing books and making gunpowder that they had a thousand years ago. They rarely change their customs. As a result, other nations, which were once not as educated, are advancing faster than the Chinese. The land of the Chinese has as many people as three or four other nations combined. A large part of that country is still unknown to Western nations, although most of our tea comes from China. It is said that the spoken language and the written language of the Chinese are two very different things. The language is incredibly difficult, and even after long study, one is only halfway learned. I am glad that the languages studied in our country's schools are not as hard as the Chinese language. Latin and German are quite difficult, although they are very interesting and also known among scholars in many countries. Latin is no longer a spoken language.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Why are the persons in that merry group laughing and chattering instead of listening to Mr. B——? 2. I think that the doctor is telling stories about a bachelor who was once a good friend of his. 3. The gentleman being talked about (160, 165) will visit us this evening, possibly. 4. My aunt and cousin will come down stairs and converse with him. 5. We shall drink as many cups of tea or of coffee as we wish. 6. He will say "How is your health, Madam?" My aunt will reply half-angrily that she is seldom ill. 7. We shall sit on the veranda, for the sun is still shining, although it is already setting. 8. That young lady who came with Mrs. C—— relates the best possible stories. 9. She says that the Chinese were already an enlightened nation hundreds of years ago, while other nations were still cruelly fighting. 10. A method for printing the pages of books, instead of writing them, was a discovery of the Chinese. They printed books in their printing-shops, a thousand years ago. 12. They also were-acquainted-with gunpowder, which they made and used for such fires as we use on national days of-celebration, when we have leisure and wish to enjoy (to amuse) ourselves. 13. But the Chinese have not changed these methods. 14. Their ways of commerce, work and pleasure are the same as they were long ago. 15. Such a nation does not progress rapidly, even though its life is very long.

1. Why are the people in that cheerful group laughing and chatting instead of listening to Mr. B——? 2. I think the doctor is sharing stories about a bachelor who used to be a good friend of his. 3. The gentleman being discussed (160, 165) might visit us this evening. 4. My aunt and cousin will come downstairs and talk with him. 5. We can have as many cups of tea or coffee as we want. 6. He'll ask, "How is your health, Ma'am?" My aunt will respond somewhat angrily that she is rarely sick. 7. We'll sit on the veranda, as the sun is still shining, even though it's beginning to set. 8. That young lady who came with Mrs. C—— tells the best stories. 9. She says that the Chinese were already an enlightened nation hundreds of years ago, while other nations were still fighting brutally. 10. A method to print pages of books instead of writing them was discovered by the Chinese. They printed books in their printing shops a thousand years ago. 12. They were also familiar with gunpowder, which they made and used for the fireworks we have on national celebration days when we have the time and want to entertain ourselves. 13. However, the Chinese have not changed these methods. 14. Their ways of commerce, work, and leisure are still the same as they were long ago. 15. Such a nation does not progress quickly, even though its life is very long.

LESSON XXXVI.
THE PRESENT PASSIVE TENSE.

168. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive participle with the present tense of the auxiliary verb esti expresses an act or condition as being undergone by the subject of the verb, and is called the present passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

168. The compound tense created by combining the present passive participle with the present tense of the auxiliary verb esti expresses an act or condition as being experienced by the subject of the verb, and is referred to as the present passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estas vidata, I am (being) seen.
vi estas vidata, you are (being) seen.
li (ŝi, ĝi) estas vidata, he (she, it) is (being) seen.
ni estas vidataj, we are (being) seen.
vi estas vidataj, you are (being) seen.
ili estas vidataj, they are (being) seen.

I am being seen.
You are being seen.
He (she, it) is being seen.
We are being seen.
You all are being seen.
They are being seen.

THE USE OF DE TO EXPRESS AGENCY.

169. The person by whom (or the thing by which) an act, indicated by a passive verb or participle, is performed is called the agent of the passive voice, and is expressed by a substantive preceded by de:

169. The person or thing that performs an action described by a passive verb or participle is called the agent of the passive voice and is represented by a noun preceded by de:

La lanco estas portata de mi, the spear is carried by me.
La libroj estas jam presataj de li, the books are already being printed by him.
La vojoj estas kovrataj de neĝo, the roads are being covered by snow.
Ŝi estas laŭdata de la sinjoro, she is being praised by the gentleman.

The spear is carried by me, the spear is carried by me.
The books are already being printed by him, the books are already being printed by him.
The roads are being covered by snow, the roads are being covered by snow.
She is being praised by the gentleman, she is being praised by the gentleman.

THE GENERAL MEANING OF DE.

170. The preposition de conveys the general idea of separation from a source or starting point, in space (literal or figurative), or in time (89, 131). This meaning develops into that of the source from which connection or ownership arises (49), and also into that of the agency from which an act is done or a condition caused (169). The prepositional phrase containing de must be so placed as to avoid ambiguity in its meaning, or must be reinforced by an adverb or other word:

170. The preposition de indicates a general sense of separation from a source or starting point, whether in space (literal or figurative) or in time (89, 131). This meaning evolves into representing the origin from which connection or ownership originates (49), as well as the source from which an action is performed or a condition is created (169). The phrase with de needs to be positioned clearly to avoid confusion in its meaning, or it must be supported by an adverb or another word:

La arbo estas malproksima de la domo, the tree is far from the house.
Ĝi estas proksima de la ĝardeno, it is near to (from) the garden.
Mi prenas la libron for de la knabo, I take the book away from the boy.
Mi prenas la libron de la knabo, I take the book of the boy.
La afero dependas de vi, the matter depends upon (from) you.

The tree is far from the house. The tree is far from the house.
It is close to the garden. It is near the garden.
I take the book away from the boy. I take the book away from the boy.
I take the boy's book. I take the boy's book.
The matter depends on you. The matter depends on you.

WORD DERIVATION FROM PRIMARY ADVERBS.

171. Adjectives, verbs, and nouns may be derived from primary adverbs (66), as well as from prepositions (120, 159):

171. Adjectives, verbs, and nouns can be created from basic adverbs (66), as well as from prepositions (120, 159):

La nunaj metodoj, the present methods (methods of-now).
Mi adiaŭis lin per adiaŭa saluto, I bade farewell to him by a farewell salute (see also 273).
Ni faris tujan interŝanĝon, we made an immediate exchange.
Ĉu li skribis jesan aŭ nean respondon? Did he write an affirmative or a negative answer?
Anstataŭ nei, li respondis jese, instead of denying, he answered affirmatively.
La morgaŭa festo estos pli agrabla ol la hieraŭa, tomorrow's (the morrow's) celebration will be more pleasant than that of yesterday.
La tiamaj personoj estis liaj samtempuloj, the persons of-that-time were his contemporaries.

The current methods, the present methods.
I said goodbye to him with a farewell salute, I bade farewell to him by a farewell salute (see also 273).
We made an immediate exchange, we made an immediate exchange.
Did he write an affirmative or a negative answer? Did he write yes or no?
Instead of denying, he answered positively, instead of denying, he answered affirmatively.
Tomorrow's celebration will be more enjoyable than yesterday's, tomorrow's celebration will be more pleasant than that of yesterday.
The people of that time were his contemporaries, the persons of-that-time were his contemporaries.

THE SUFFIX -IST-.

172. The suffix -ist- is added to roots to express the profession, trade or occupation connected with the idea in the root:

172. The suffix -ist- is added to roots to indicate the profession, trade, or occupation related to the concept in the root:

floristo, florist.
komercisto, trader, merchant.
servisto, servant.
okulisto, oculist.
presisto, printer.
ŝtelisto, thief.
Vocabulary.
administr-i, to manage.
antikv-a, ancient
Eŭrop-o, Europe.
grav-a, important, serious.
ital-a, Italian.
kvadrat-a, square.
mont-o, mountain.
nom-o, name.
proksim-a, near.
reprezent-i, to represent.
respublik-o, republic.
tiran-o, tyrant.

The words antikva, maljuna, malnova, all of which may at times be translated "old," must not be confused in use: Mi havas malnovan ĉapelon, I have an old hat (a hat which is not new). Li estas maljuna sinjoro, he is an old (aged) gentleman. Li estas malnova amiko mia, he is an old friend of mine (a friend of long standing). La ĥinoj estis kleraj eĉ en la antikva tempo, the Chinese were learned even in the olden time (in ancient time). La antikvaj kleruloj jam sciis tre multe, the ancient learned (enlightened) men already knew a great deal. La maljuna sinjoro en la malnovaj vestoj estas antikvisto, the old gentleman with the old clothes is an antiquary.

The words antikva, maljuna, and malnova, which can all be translated as "old" at times, should not be confused in their use: Mi havas malnovan ĉapelon, I have an old hat (a hat that’s not new). Li estas maljuna sinjoro, he is an old (aged) gentleman. Li estas malnova amiko mia, he is an old friend of mine (a longtime friend). La ĥinoj estis kleraj eĉ en la antikva tempo, the Chinese were learned even in ancient times. La antikvaj kleruloj jam sciis tre multe, the ancient scholars already knew a great deal. La maljuna sinjoro en la malnovaj vestoj estas antikvisto, the old gentleman in the old clothes is an antiquarian.

ANTIKVA RESPUBLIKO.

La plej antikva respubliko en Eŭropo kuŝas en la norda parto de la bela itala lando, inter la maro kaj la rivero, proksime de la montoj. Ĝia nomo estas San Marino, kaj ĝi estas respubliko de antaŭ mil kvarcent jaroj. Kvankam la ĉirkaŭaj landoj kaj nacioj apartenis en antikva tempo al la tiamaj reĝoj, San Marino jam estis libera. Ĝiaj aferoj estas ankoraŭ administrataj tiel, kiel la anoj (145) volas, ne kiel unu aŭ alia reĝo aŭ tirano deziras. Dufoje en la jaro la anoj elektas personojn, kiuj administros la gravajn aferojn de la respubliko dum la sekvontaj ses monatoj. Kvardek ses el tiuj personoj reprezentas la anojn, kaj unu alia estas reĝo tiun duonon da jaro. Per tia metodo, la anoj estas bone reprezentataj, kaj la aferoj estas administrataj kiel eble plej saĝe. La tuta respubliko enhavas nur dudek du kvadratajn mejlojn da tero. En la respubliko kaj la tiea (171) urbo kiu havas la saman nomon, ne estas tiom da personoj kiom en multaj italaj urboj. Tamen ĉi tiu respubliko estas pli granda ol multaj antikvaj grekaj respublikoj. La grekaj respublikoj estis bonekonataj, kaj enhavis multe da kleruloj inter siaj anoj. Sed en la nuna tempo la grekoj havas reĝon. Oni ne trovas tre klerajn personojn en San Marino, tamen la laboristoj estas energiaj, kaj laboras kiel eble plej multe. La rikoltistoj plej ofte havas bonajn rikoltojn, kaj la plimulto da personoj estas treege kontenta kaj feliĉa. Oni ne pensas pri komerco aŭ eksterlandaj (167, a) aferoj kaj ne volas vojaĝi malproksimen de la bone amata hejmo. Oni preferas gaje amuzi sin ĉehejme (167, a), en la libertempo inter la rikoltoj, kaj la vivo tute ne ŝajnas malfacila aŭ teda.

The oldest republic in Europe is located in the northern part of beautiful Italy, between the sea and the river, near the mountains. Its name is San Marino, and it has been a republic for over fourteen hundred years. Although the surrounding countries and nations once belonged to the kings of that era, San Marino was already free. Its affairs are still managed as the citizens wish, not as any king or tyrant desires. Twice a year, the citizens elect individuals to oversee the important matters of the republic for the next six months. Forty-six of those individuals represent the citizens, while one other acts as a leader for that half of the year. With this system, the citizens are well represented, and the affairs are managed as wisely as possible. The entire republic covers only twenty-two square miles of land. In the republic and the town of the same name, there are not as many people as in many Italian cities. However, this republic is larger than many ancient Greek republics. The Greek republics were well-known and had many educated individuals among their citizens. But nowadays, the Greeks have a king. There aren’t many educated people in San Marino; however, the workers are energetic and work as much as they can. The farmers often have good harvests, and the majority of the people are very content and happy. They don’t think about trade or foreign affairs and don’t want to travel far from their beloved home. They prefer to enjoy themselves merrily at home during their free time between the harvests, and life doesn’t seem difficult or tedious at all.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The serious affairs of a republic are managed by persons representing the persons who live there. 2. The inhabitants are well represented, and as free as possible. 3. Enlightened persons often prefer to live in a republic. 4. Persons who have a good king are very happy, but those who have a bad king are as unhappy as possible. 5. Nowadays (nuntempe) there are very few tyrants. 6. The majority of the kings of Europe are praiseworthy. 7. That nation which was most enlightened a thousand years ago was the Chinese nation. 8. The Chinese of-that-time already had good printers among them. 9. It is said (54) that the Chinese drink as much tea as two or three contemporary nations. 10. The oldest republic in Europe is named San Marino. 11. It is near the mountains, in the northern part of the much praised Italian land. 12. It contains only twenty-two square miles, and is therefore one of the smallest republics in the world. 13. Fourteen hundred years ago it was already a republic, and it is still that same republic. 14. The inhabitants are energetic and patient, and have as much to eat as they need. 15. There are bakers and shopkeepers (172) and many laborers among them. 16. They do not think about commerce, or greatly (multe) change their customs. 17. They seldom take (faras) tiresome journeys, but remain peacefully (pace) at home.

1. The serious matters of a republic are managed by people who represent the residents. 2. The inhabitants are well represented and as free as possible. 3. Enlightened people often prefer to live in a republic. 4. People with a good king are very happy, but those with a bad king are extremely unhappy. 5. Nowadays, there are very few tyrants. 6. Most of the kings in Europe are commendable. 7. The nation that was the most enlightened a thousand years ago was China. 8. The Chinese at that time already had good printers. 9. It is said that the Chinese drink as much tea as two or three contemporary nations combined. 10. The oldest republic in Europe is called San Marino. 11. It is located near the mountains in the northern part of the highly regarded Italian region. 12. It covers only twenty-two square miles, making it one of the smallest republics in the world. 13. Fourteen hundred years ago, it was already a republic, and it remains that same republic today. 14. The inhabitants are energetic and patient, and they have enough food to meet their needs. 15. There are bakers and shopkeepers, as well as many laborers among them. 16. They don't focus on commerce or significantly change their customs. 17. They rarely take exhausting journeys and prefer to stay peacefully at home.

LESSON XXXVII.
THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN.

173. The distributive pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is ĉiu, each (one), every (one). Sometimes it is equivalent to English any, as in "Any one who studies can learn," etc. The plural is ĉiuj, every, all. The article is never interposed between ĉiuj and the noun modified (as in English "all the men"), and is used only if ĉiuj is pronominal and followed by el:

173. The distributive pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is ĉiu, each (one), every (one). Sometimes it is equivalent to the English word any, as in "Anyone who studies can learn," etc. The plural is ĉiuj, every, all. The article is never placed between ĉiuj and the noun it modifies (unlike in English, where you say "all the men"), and it is used only if ĉiuj is pronominal and followed by el:

The use of ĉiu and ĉiuj must be distinguished from that of the adjective tuta, which means "all" in the sense of "entire": Ĉiuj viroj laboras la tutan tagon, all men work all (the whole) day. Mi vidis ĉiun vizaĝon, sed mi ne vidis la tutan vizaĝon de ĉiu viro, I saw every face, but I did not see all the face of each man.

The use of ĉiu and ĉiuj must be distinguished from the adjective tuta, which means "all" in the sense of "entire": Ĉiuj viroj laboras la tutan tagon, all men work the whole day. Mi vidis ĉiun vizaĝon, sed mi ne vidis la tutan vizaĝon de ĉiu viro, I saw every face, but I did not see the whole face of each man.

Ĉiu, kiu studos, lernos, every one who studies will learn.
Mi vidis ĉiun el ili, kaj parolis al ĉiu knabo, I saw each of them, and talked to every boy.
Mi dankas vin ĉiujn, I thank you all (I thank all of you).
Ni ĉiuj estas reprezentataj, we are all (all of us are) represented.
Ĉiuj el la maristoj alvenis, all (every one) of the sailors arrived.

Anyone who studies will learn.
I saw each of them and spoke to every boy.
I thank you all.
We are all represented.
All of the sailors arrived.

174. The distributive pronoun has a possessive or genitive form ĉies, every-one's, every-body's:

174. The distributive pronoun has a possessive or genitive form ĉies, everyone's, everybody's:

Li konas ĉies nomon, he knows every-one's name.
Ĉies opinio estis diversa, every-body's opinion was different.
Kies voĉojn mi aŭdas? Ĉies, whose voices do I hear? Everybody's.

He knows everyone's name.
Everybody's opinion was different.
Whose voices do I hear? Everybody's.

THE PREPOSITION PO.

175. The preposition po, at the rate of, at, is used chiefly before cardinals and has a distributive sense:

175. The preposition po, at the rate of, at, is primarily used before cardinal numbers and conveys a distributive meaning:

Li marŝas po kvar mejloj ĉiutage, he walks at the rate of four miles daily (every-day).
Mi aĉetis kafon po malalta prezo, I bought coffee at a low price.
Mi aĉetis viandon po kvarono da dolaro por funto, I bought meat at a quarter of a dollar for (per) pound.
La ĉapelisto aĉetas ĉapelojn pogrande, the hatter buys hats wholesale.

He walks four miles every day, he walks at the rate of four miles daily.
I bought coffee for a low price, I bought coffee at a low price.
I bought meat for a quarter per pound, I bought meat at a quarter of a dollar for (per) pound.
The hat maker buys hats in bulk, the hatter buys hats wholesale.

DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS.

176. A compound word whose first element is a substantive, dependent upon the second element in some prepositional relation, is called a dependent compound. (If the two words were not united into one, the first element would be preceded by a preposition, or would be in the accusative case.) The ending -o may be omitted from the first element of a dependent compound:

176. A compound word where the first part is a noun, relying on the second part in some prepositional way, is known as a dependent compound. (If the two words weren’t combined into one, a preposition would come before the first part, or it would be in the accusative case.) The ending -o can be dropped from the first part of a dependent compound:

A personal pronoun serving as the first element of a dependent compound may keep the accusative ending, to indicate its construction: sinlaŭdo, self-praise. sinekzameno, self-examination. sindefendo, self-defence. sinkontraŭdira, self-contradictory.

A personal pronoun functioning as the first part of a dependent compound may retain the accusative ending to show its construction: sinlaŭdo, self-praise. sinekzameno, self-examination. sindefendo, self-defense. sinkontraŭdira, self-contradictory.

jarcento, century (cento da jaroj).
manĝoĉambro, dining-room (ĉambro por manĝoj).
noktomezo, midnight (mezo de la nokto).
paperfaristo, papermaker (faristo de papero).
sunbrilo, sunshine (brilo de la suno).
tagmezo, noon (mezo de la tago).
vespermanĝo, supper (manĝo je la vespero).
ventoflago, weathercock (flago por la vento).

jarcento, century (a hundred years).
manĝoĉambro, dining room (room for meals).
noktomezo, midnight (middle of the night).
paperfaristo, papermaker (maker of paper).
sunbrilo, sunshine (brightness of the sun).
tagmezo, noon (middle of the day).
vespermanĝo, supper (meal in the evening).
ventoflago, weather vane (flag for the wind).

Vocabulary.
ĉies, every body's (174).
ĉiu, every-body (173).
decid-i, to decide.
dev-o, duty.
fleks-i, to bend.
genu-o, knee.
intenc-i, to intend.
juĝ-i, to judge.
lag-o, lake.
po, at the rate of (175).
sever-a, severe.
stang-o, pole.
svis-o, Swiss.
vend-i, to sell.
Vilhelm-o, William.
vort-o, word.
LA ĈAPELO SUR LA STANGO.

Antaŭ ol Svislando estis tiel libera kiel la nuna svisa respubliko, ĝiaj aferoj estis administrataj de personoj kiuj reprezentis aliajn naciojn. Ofte tiuj personoj estis kiel eble plej severaj juĝistoj al la svisoj. Unufoje plej kruela tirano estis administranta aferojn svisajn. Li elpensis rimarkindan metodon por montri sian povon (power), kaj por esti malagrabla al la svisoj. Li decidis meti sian ĉapelon sur altan stangon en la vendejo (market-place), en malgranda vilaĝo apud bela lago inter la altaj montoj. Li diris ke de nun tiu ĉapelo reprezentas lin, kaj portos lian nomon. Saluti la ĉapelon estos la grava devo de ĉiu persono en la vilaĝo. Estos ĉies devo ne nur saluti la ĉapelon, sed ankaŭ genufleksi (kneel) antaŭ la stango. La tirano diris ke li forprenos la domon, la kampojn kaj tiom da mono, kiom li povos, de ĉiu vilaĝano aŭ kamparano kiu forgesos genufleksi. "Mi intencas sendi gardistojn," li diris, "kiuj rimarkos ĉu vi ĉiuj genufleksos kiam vi estas proksimaj de la stango." Je tagmezo alvenis gardistoj, por rimarki ĉu la necesaj salutoj estos farataj de ĉiuj, kaj por kapti ĉiujn svisojn kiuj ne genufleksis. Baldaŭ la kamparanoj komencis eniri la vendejon, por vendi legomojn po kiel eble altaj prezoj, kaj por aĉeti vestojn kaj aliajn aferojn po treege plej malaltaj prezoj. Ĉiu, kiu iris proksimen de la stango, zorge genufleksis antaŭ la ĉapelo de la malamata tirano, pro timo pri la hejmoj kaj la familioj. Fine, kamparano, kies nomo estis Vilhelmo Tell, eniris la vendejon, kaj staris du aŭ tri minutojn proksime de la stango, dum li diris kelkajn vortojn al amiko. Sed anstataŭ fari tujan saluton, aŭ genufleksi, li tute ne rigardis la stangon.

Before Switzerland was as free as the current Swiss Republic, its affairs were managed by people who represented other nations. Often, these individuals were harsh judges towards the Swiss. At one point, a particularly cruel tyrant was in charge of Swiss matters. He came up with a notable method to demonstrate his power and to humiliate the Swiss. He decided to place his hat on a tall pole in the marketplace of a small village near a beautiful lake surrounded by high mountains. He declared that from now on, this hat represents him and will bear his name. Saluting the hat would be the important duty of every person in the village. It would be everyone's responsibility not only to salute the hat but also to kneel before the pole. The tyrant said he would take away the homes, the fields, and as much money as he could from any villager or peasant who forgot to kneel. "I plan to send guards," he said, "who will watch to see if you all kneel when you're near the pole." At noon, guards arrived to observe whether the necessary greetings were made by everyone and to catch any Swiss who failed to kneel. Soon, the peasants began to enter the marketplace to sell vegetables at the highest prices possible and to buy clothes and other goods at the lowest prices imaginable. Everyone who approached the pole carefully kneeled before the hated tyrant's hat, fearing for their homes and families. Finally, a peasant named William Tell entered the marketplace and stood near the pole for two or three minutes while he spoke a few words to a friend. But instead of immediately greeting or kneeling, he completely ignored the pole.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The day before yesterday my youngest cousin was sitting on my knee, and I told him that a rainbow (ĉielarko) is made by the sunshine and the rain. 2. My cousin goes to school every day, after he has breakfast in the dining-room. 3. A new school is being built, not far from the home of the judge. 4. It is my cousin's duty to study those books at the rate of ten pages a day. 5. My cousin and I decided last night (93) to buy new hats for ourselves. 6. We intend to go to the hatter's early tomorrow morning. 7. I think that all clothes are being sold at a low price at-the-present-time. 8. During a visit at a friend's, I read an interesting book about ancient Europe. 9. It relates that several centuries ago a severe and cruel tyrant was managing affairs in Switzerland. 10. Once he put his hat on a pole in the market-place, and said that it was the duty of-every-one to kneel before it. 11. This serious affair happened in a village one or two miles square, on (ĉe) the lake not far from the mountains through which one goes on the way (167, a) to the Italian land. 12. William Tell did not kneel or even look at the hat representing the tyrant.

1. The day before yesterday, my youngest cousin was sitting on my lap, and I told him that a rainbow (ĉielarko) is created by sunshine and rain. 2. My cousin goes to school every day after he has breakfast in the dining room. 3. A new school is being built not far from the judge's house. 4. It’s my cousin's responsibility to study those books at the pace of ten pages a day. 5. My cousin and I decided last night (93) to buy new hats for ourselves. 6. We plan to go to the hat shop early tomorrow morning. 7. I think all clothes are being sold at low prices right now. 8. During a visit to a friend's house, I read an interesting book about ancient Europe. 9. It tells that several centuries ago, a harsh and cruel tyrant was in charge in Switzerland. 10. Once, he placed his hat on a pole in the market square and declared that it was everyone’s duty to kneel before it. 11. This serious incident took place in a village about one or two miles square, on (ĉe) the lake, not far from the mountains that you pass through on the way (167, a) to Italy. 12. William Tell didn’t kneel or even look at the hat symbolizing the tyrant.

LESSON XXXVIII.
THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE.

177. The distributive adjective related to the distributive pronoun ĉiu, giving a comprehensive idea of the quality of some person or thing, is ĉia, every kind of, every sort of:

177. The distributive adjective associated with the distributive pronoun ĉiu, which conveys a complete understanding of the quality of a person or thing, is ĉia, every kind of, every sort of:

Oni vendas ĉiajn fruktojn tie, they sell every sort of fruit there.
Estas ĉiaj personoj en la mondo, there are all sorts of persons in the world.

They sell every kind of fruit there, they sell every sort of fruit there.
There are all kinds of people in the world, there are all sorts of persons in the world.

THE IMPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.

178. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive participle with the past tense of the auxiliary verb esti expresses an act or condition as being undergone by the subject of the verb at some time in the past. It is called the imperfect passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

178. The compound tense created by combining the present passive participle with the past tense of the auxiliary verb esti indicates that an act or condition was experienced by the subject of the verb at some point in the past. This is known as the imperfect passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estis vidata, I was (being) seen.
vi estis vidata, you were (being) seen.
li (ŝi, ĝi) estis vidata, he (she, it) was (being) seen.
ni estis vidataj, we were (being) seen.
vi estis vidataj, you were (being) seen.
ili estis vidataj, they were (being) seen.

I was seen, I was (being) seen.
You were seen, you were (being) seen.
He (she, it) was seen, he (she, it) was (being) seen.
We were seen, we were (being) seen.
You were seen, you were (being) seen.
They were seen, they were (being) seen.

COMPOUND TENSES OF IMPERSONAL VERBS.

179. When impersonal verbs, or other verbs used impersonally, are in compound tenses, the participial element is given the ending -e, like other modifiers of impersonally used verbs (141):

179. When impersonal verbs, or other verbs used impersonally, are in compound tenses, the participial element is given the ending -e, just like other modifiers of impersonally used verbs (141):

Estis pluvante antaŭ unu minuto, it was raining a minute ago.
Estis multe neĝinte, it had snowed a great deal.
Estis vidate ke ĉiu ploras, it was seen that every one wept.

It was raining a minute ago, it was raining a minute ago.
It had snowed a lot, it had snowed a great deal.
It was obvious that everyone was crying, it was seen that every one wept.

RECIPROCAL EXPRESSIONS.

180. To give a reciprocal sense, when there are two or more subjects and the action goes from one to the other (expressed in English by "each other," "one another," "mutually," "reciprocally"), the phrases unu la alian, unu al la alia, etc., or the adverb reciproke, is used:

180. To convey a mutual sense, when there are two or more subjects and the action goes from one to the other (expressed in English as "each other," "one another," "mutually," "reciprocally"), the phrases unu la alian, unu al la alia, etc., or the adverb reciproke, is used:

Estas nia devo helpi unu la alian, it is our duty to help one another.
Ili parolas unu al la alia, they are talking to each other.
La viroj reciproke uzis siajn pafilojn, the men used each other's guns.
Ili falis unu sur la alian, they fell upon each other.

It's our duty to help each other, it is our duty to help one another.
They are talking to each other, they are talking to each other.
The men used each other's guns, the men used each other's guns.
They fell on top of each other, they fell upon each other.

THE SUFFIX -UJ-.

181. The suffix -uj- may be used to form words indicating that which contains, bears, or is a receptacle for, some number or quantity of that which is expressed by the root. It may be used instead of -lando to form the name of a region containing any one race or tribe, and instead of -arbo to form the names of fruit trees:

181. The suffix -uj- can be used to create words that indicate something that contains, holds, or acts as a receptacle for a certain number or amount of what is expressed by the root. It can replace -lando to create the name of a region that includes any one race or tribe, and it can also replace -arbo to create the names of fruit trees:

ujo, a receptacle.
monujo, purse.
supujo, soup-tureen.
leterujo, letter-case.
patrujo (patrolando), fatherland.
sukerujo, sugar-bowl.
pomujo (pomarbo), apple-tree.
sagujo, quiver.
Vocabulary.
ag-i, to act.
ceter-a, remaining.
ĉia, of every kind (177).
fier-a, proud.
imag-i, to imagine.
konduk-i, to lead.
kor-o, heart.
mort-i, to die.
pet-i, to plead, to request.
prepar-i, to prepare.
pun-i, to punish.
reciprok-a, reciprocal, mutual.
simil-a, like, similar.
tuŝ-i, to touch.
VILHELMO TELL KAJ LA POMO.

Tuj kiam la gardistoj rimarkis ke la ĉapelo sur la stango ne estis salutata de Vilhelmo Tell, ili kaptis lin, kaj kondukis lin al la tirano, por esti juĝata. La tirano demandis de Tell kial li ne genufleksis antaŭ la ĉapelo, simile al la aliaj vilaĝanoj. Tell respondis fiere ke li ne sciis pri la ĉiutagaj genufleksoj de la aliaj personoj. Li diris ke li tute ne intencis agi kontraŭ la deziroj de la juĝistoj. Sed la tirano malamis la altan fortan svison, tial li decidis puni lin per severa puno, kaj demandis "Kiun el viaj infanoj vi plej amas?" Vilhelmo Tell ne povis imagi kial la demando estas farata al li, kaj respondis "Mi amas ĉiujn el ili, sinjoro." La tirano diris "Nu, estas rakontate inter la vilaĝanoj ke vi estas rimarkinda arkpafisto (archer). Ni eltrovos kia arkpafisto vi estas. Ni vidos ĉu vi povos forpafi pomon de sur la kapo de via plej juna filo. Aldone (in addition), estos via devo forpafi la pomon per la unua sago, alie (otherwise) mi punos vin kaj vian filon per tuja morto." Tell diris ke li estas preta por ricevi ĉian alian punon, anstataŭ tia puno, sed malgraŭ ĉies petoj la tirano estis jam elektanta pomon de apuda pomarbo. Li kondukis la knabon malproksimen de la ceteraj personoj, kaj metis la pomon sur lian kapon. Tell kaj la filo reciproke rigardis sin, dum la patro diris ke li ne tuŝos haron de lia kapo. Tiam li elprenis sagon el la sagujo, faris la necesajn preparojn, kaj rapide pafis. Tuj la pomo forfalis de la kapo de la infano, kaj ĉiu havis feliĉan koron. Dum Tell ĉirkaŭprenis la filon, la tirano demandis "Kial vi havas tiun ceteran sagon en la mano." Tell laŭte respondis "Por mortpafi vin, tuj post la infano, ĉar mi treege timis pro la vivo de mia kara filo."

When the guards noticed that the hat on the pole wasn’t being saluted by William Tell, they captured him and brought him before the tyrant for judgment. The tyrant asked Tell why he didn’t kneel before the hat like the other villagers. Tell proudly replied that he had no idea about the daily kneeling of the others. He said he didn’t intend to defy the wishes of the judges at all. But the tyrant hated the tall, strong Swiss man, so he decided to punish him harshly and asked, "Which of your children do you love the most?" William Tell couldn't imagine why he was being asked this question and answered, "I love all of them, sir." The tyrant said, "Well, it’s told among the villagers that you are a remarkable archer. We’ll find out what kind of archer you are. We will see if you can shoot an apple off your youngest son’s head. Additionally, it will be your duty to shoot the apple with the first arrow; otherwise, I will punish you and your son with immediate death." Tell said he was ready to face any other punishment instead of that, but despite everyone’s pleas, the tyrant was already choosing an apple from a nearby apple tree. He took the boy away from the others and placed the apple on his head. Tell and his son looked at each other, while the father said he wouldn’t touch a hair on his head. Then he took an arrow from the quiver, made the necessary preparations, and shot quickly. Instantly, the apple fell from the child’s head, and everyone felt joy in their hearts. As Tell embraced his son, the tyrant asked, "Why do you have that other arrow in your hand?" Tell loudly replied, "To shoot you right after the boy, because I was extremely afraid for my dear son's life."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. William Tell had a strong flexible (161) bow. 2. He could shoot-with-a-bow (arkpafi) excellently, therefore he was a well-known archer. 3. He put six or eight arrows into his quiver, and went with his sons to the village. 4. Possibly he saw the hat upon the pole, but he did not kneel before it. 5. It was being noticed already in the village that Tell hated the tyrant very much. 6. When the guards seized him for that act, and led him before the tyrant, who was also the judge, Tell said "I did not know about this new duty, and could not imagine why the hat was on the pole there." 7. The tyrant replied with (per) angry words, for he hated the proud Swiss whom every one else loved. 8. He said severely "It is said that you are a praiseworthy archer. 9. Therefore I was wondering whether you could shoot an apple from your son's head. 10. Now we shall see whether you can shoot off the apple, or whether you will touch the child's head." 11. Amid the pleadings of all, Tell successfully shot off the apple. 12. A similar second arrow was ready in his hand. 13. The tyrant saw the remaining arrow, and prepared to punish Tell by death. 14. But he escaped, and the Swiss congratulated each other heartily (kore). 15. After some time they followed him, at the rate of six miles an hour.

1. William Tell had a strong, flexible bow. 2. He was an excellent archer, so he was well-known for his skills. 3. He put six or eight arrows in his quiver and went to the village with his sons. 4. He might have seen the hat on the pole, but he didn't kneel before it. 5. People in the village were already noticing that Tell really hated the tyrant. 6. When the guards took him for that act and brought him before the tyrant, who was also the judge, Tell said, "I didn’t know about this new rule, and I couldn't understand why the hat was on the pole." 7. The tyrant responded with angry words because he despised the proud Swiss whom everyone else loved. 8. He said sternly, "I’ve heard you’re a remarkable archer. 9. So I was wondering if you could shoot an apple off your son's head. 10. Now we'll see if you can hit the apple or if you’ll hit the child's head." 11. Despite everyone's pleas, Tell successfully shot the apple off. 12. He had a second arrow ready in his hand. 13. The tyrant saw the remaining arrow and prepared to punish Tell with death. 14. But he escaped, and the Swiss warmly congratulated each other. 15. After some time, they followed him at a speed of six miles an hour.

LESSON XXXIX.
THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.

182. The distributive adverb of place, related to the distributive pronoun ĉiu, is ĉie, everywhere. The ending -n may be added to ĉie to show direction of motion (121):

182. The distributive adverb of place, connected to the distributive pronoun ĉiu, is ĉie, meaning everywhere. You can add the ending -n to ĉie to indicate direction of movement (121):

Oni trovas tiajn virojn ĉie, such men are found everywhere.
Li iris ĉien, kie mi estis estinta, he went everywhere where I had been.
Mi vidas lin ĉie, kien mi iras, I see him everywhere I go.

Such men are found everywhere.
He went everywhere I had been.
I see him everywhere I go.

THE FUTURE PASSIVE TENSE.

183. The compound tense formed by combining the present passive participle with the future tense of esti indicates that an act or condition will be undergone by the subject of the verb. It is called the future passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

183. The compound tense created by combining the present passive participle with the future tense of esti shows that an action or condition will be experienced by the subject of the verb. This is referred to as the future passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estos vidata, I shall be seen.
vi estos vidata, you will be seen.
li (ŝi, ĝi) estos vidata, he (she, it) will be seen.
ni estos vidataj, we shall be seen.
vi estos vidataj, you will be seen.
ili estos vidataj, they will be seen.

I will be seen, I shall be seen.
You will be seen, you will be seen.
He (she, it) will be seen, he (she, it) will be seen.
We will be seen, we shall be seen.
You will be seen, you will be seen.
They will be seen, they will be seen.

POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS.

184. Compound adjectives may be formed with an adjectival root for the first element, and a noun-root for the second element. Such adjectives have the meaning "possessed of" that which is indicated in the compound. (Similar adjectives are formed in English, with -ed as the final syllable):

184. Compound adjectives can be created using an adjective as the first element and a noun as the second element. These adjectives convey the meaning of "having" what is represented in the compound. (Similar adjectives are made in English, ending with -ed):

belbrova, beautiful-browed.
bonintenca, good-intentioned.
dumana, two-handed.
longnaza, long-nosed.
kvarpieda, four-footed.
ruĝhara, red-haired.
THE TIME OF DAY.

185. The ordinals are used in expressing the hour of the day, with horo expressed or understood. The minutes are expressed by the cardinals. In questions the adjective kioma (from kiom, how much) is used:

185. Ordinal numbers are used to tell the time of day, with horo either stated or implied. Minutes are indicated using cardinal numbers. In questions, the adjective kioma (from kiom, how much) is used:

Kioma horo estas? What hour (what o'clock, what time) is it?
Je kioma horo vi venos? At what time (what o'clock) will you come?
Estas la dua horo, it is two o'clock (it is the second hour).
Estas la tria kaj kvin minutoj, it is five minutes past three.
Ni iris je la sesa kaj duono, we went at half past six.
Estas la oka kaj kvardek kvin (or: estas unu kvarono antaŭ la naŭa), it is eight forty-five (a quarter of nine).

What time is it? What hour is it?
What time will you come? When will you arrive?
It's two o'clock, it's the second hour.
It's five minutes past three, it's three oh five.
We went at half past six, we left at six thirty.
It's eight forty-five (or: it's a quarter to nine).

THE SUFFIX -OBL-.

186. The suffix -obl- is used to form multiples indicating how many fold, as "two fold," "double," "triple," etc.:

186. The suffix -obl- is used to create multiples that indicate how many times something is, like "twofold," "double," "triple," and so on:

duoblo, a double.
duobla, double.
duoble, doubly.
kvarobla, quadruple.
kvindekobla, fifty-fold.
multobla, manifold.
Trioble du estas ses, three times two is six.

duoblo, a double.
duobla, double.
duoble, doubly.
kvarobla, quadruple.
kvindekobla, fifty-fold.
multobla, manifold.
Trioble du estas ses, three times two is six.

Vocabulary.
bilet-o, ticket.
cend-o, cent.
ĉie, everywhere (182).
esprim-o, expression.
giĉet-o, wicket, ticket-window.
horloĝ-o, clock.
pag-i, to pay.
preter, beyond, past.
staci-o, station.
telefon-i, to telephone.
vagon-o, car.
valiz-o, valise.

The preposition preter indicates the movement of something alongside of and passing beyond something else. Since it does not express motion toward its complement, it cannot be followed by the accusative.

The preposition preter shows the movement of something alongside and past something else. Since it doesn't indicate motion toward its complement, it can't be followed by the accusative.

EN LA STACIDOMO.

Du bonkoraj (184) amikoj miaj loĝas en la urbo B——. Ni reciproke konas nin de antaŭ ses jaroj. Mi estis duoble ĝoja hieraŭ kiam mi ricevis leteron de ili, ĉar en tiu ili petis de mi baldaŭan viziton. Tial mi telefonis hieraŭ posttagmeze al la stacidomo, por demandi je kioma horo foriros la vagonaro (train) al B——. Oni respondis per la telefono ke la vagonaro foriros je la tria kaj tridek kvin. Tuj poste mi enmetis kelkajn vestojn en mian jam preskaŭ eluzitan valizon, kaj faris ĉiujn preparojn por la mallonga vojaĝo. Je la dua horo, tuj post la tagmanĝo (midday meal), mi marŝis stacidomon. Survoje mi eniris butikon kaj aĉetis paron da novaj gantoj. Kiam mi eniris la stacidomon, mi kuris preter la aliaj personoj al la giĉeto kie biletoj estas vendataj. Mi diris al la sinjoro ĉe la giĉeto "Mi deziras bileton al B——. Kiom estos necese pagi?" La brunokula sinjoro respondis "Tia bileto kostos dolaron dudek cendojn." Mi puŝis tiom da mono tra la giĉeto, kaj tuj ricevis la bileton, kiun la sinjoro jam havis en la mano. Tiam mi iris proksimen de la pordego tra kiu oni estos enlasata al la vagonaro. "Kiom da tempo antaŭ la foriro de la vagonaro al B——?" mi demandis al la gardisto. Li laŭtvoĉe respondis "Nur sep minutojn. Ĉu vi ne vidas tiun horloĝon?" Mi ne estis rimarkinta la horloĝon, tial mi almetis la montrilojn de mia poŝhorloĝo (watch) por montri la saman horon. Mi estis multe tuŝata de ĉiaj bonintencaj personoj kurantaj ĉien preter mi, kaj puŝantaj unu la alian. Fine oni malfermis la pordegon. Mi kaj la ceteraj personoj rapidis al la vagonaro kaj kiel eble plej baldaŭ eniris ĝin.

Du bonkoraj (184) amikoj miaj vivas en la urbo B——. Ni pli-malpli konas unu la alian de antaŭ ses jaroj. Iĝis mi duoble ĝoja hieraŭ kiam mi ricevis leteron de ili, ĉar en ĝi ili petis, ke mi vizitu ilin baldaŭ. Tial mi telefonis hieraŭ posttagmeze al la stacidomo, por demandi je kioma horo foriros la vagonaro (train) al B——. Oni respondis al mi en la telefono, ke la vagonaro foriros je la tria kaj tridek kvin. Tuj post tio, mi enmetis kelkajn vestojn en mian jam preskaŭ eluzitan valizon, kaj faris ĉiujn preparojn por la mallonga vojaĝo. Je la dua horo, tuj post la tagmanĝo (midday meal), mi marŝis al la stacidomo. Survoje, mi eniris butikon kaj aĉetis paron da novaj gantoj. Kiam mi eniris la stacidomon, mi kuris preter ĉiuj aliaj al la giĉeto kie oni vendas biletojn. Mi diris al la sinjoro ĉe la giĉeto, "Mi deziras bileton al B——. Kiom kostos?" La brunokula sinjoro respondis, "Tia bileto kostos dolarojn dudek cendojn." Mi puŝis tiom da mono tra la giĉeto, kaj tuj ricevis la bileton, kiun la sinjoro jam havis en la mano. Tiam mi iris proksimen al la pordego tra kiu oni estos enlasata al la vagonaro. "Kiom da tempo antaŭ la foriro de la vagonaro al B——?" mi demandis al la gardisto. Li laŭtvoĉe respondis, "Nur sep minutojn. Ĉu vi ne vidas tiun horloĝon?" Mi ne rimarkis la horloĝon, do mi ajustis la montrilojn de mia poŝhorloĝo (watch) por montri la saman horon. Mi estis multe tuŝita de ĉiuj bonintencaj homoj kurantaj ĉie preter mi, kaj puŝantaj unu la alian. Fine oni malfermis la pordegon. Mi kaj la ceteraj homoj rapidis al la vagonaro kaj kiel eble plej rapide eniris ĝin.

Posttagmezo, afternoon, is a descriptive compound (167, a) whose second element tagmezo is a dependent compound (176).

Posttagmezo, afternoon, is a descriptive compound (167, a) whose second element tagmezo is a dependent compound (176).

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Because of the request of my friend whose brother died recently, I went last (la antaŭan) week to visit him. 2. The remaining persons of his family were not at home. 3. I telephoned to find out at what time the train would depart. 4. I was told (54) that it would leave at four twenty-seven. 5. I put enough money into my purse, and carried along (kunportis) a valise into which I had put some clothes. 6. When I entered the station, I hurried past the other people to the wicket, and asked for (petis) a ticket to B——. 7. The ticket seller said "Two dollars and forty cents." 8. I could not imagine why it was necessary to pay so much, but I at once pushed that much money through the window, and received the ticket. 9. Then I looked at my watch and went near the gate, but the yellowhaired guard who conducts persons to the trains said "Persons who go through that gate before the train arrives will be severely punished." 10. So all of us stood near the double gate. 11. The trains are much like each other, and it is better to act as the guards request, and not express impatience.

1. Because a friend asked me to, since his brother passed away recently, I went last week to visit him. 2. The rest of his family wasn't home. 3. I called to check what time the train would leave. 4. I was told it would leave at four twenty-seven. 5. I put enough money in my purse and carried a suitcase with some clothes. 6. When I got to the station, I rushed past the other people to the ticket counter and asked for a ticket to B——. 7. The ticket seller said, "Two dollars and forty cents." 8. I couldn’t understand why the price was so high, but I quickly handed the money through the window and got the ticket. 9. Then I checked my watch and headed near the gate, but the blond guard who directs people to the trains said, "Anyone who goes through that gate before the train arrives will be severely punished." 10. So we all waited by the double gate. 11. The trains look pretty similar, and it's best to follow the guards' instructions and not show impatience.

LESSON XL.
THE DISTRIBUTIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.

187. The distributive adverb of time, related to the distributive pronoun ĉiu, is ĉiam, always, at all times:

187. The distributive adverb of time, related to the distributive pronoun ĉiu, is ĉiam, always, at all times:

Vi ĉiam pagas tro multe, you always pay too much.
Mi estas ĉiam preta por helpi vin, I am always ready to help you.

We always pay too much, you always pay too much.
I am always ready to help you, I am always ready to help you.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB ĈIAL.

188. The distributive adverb of motive or reason, related to the pronoun ĉiu, is ĉial, for every reason, for all reasons:

188. The distributive adverb of motive or reason, related to the pronoun ĉiu, is ĉial, for every reason, for all reasons:

Ĉial li estas feliĉa hodiaŭ, for every reason he is happy today.
La mia ĉial estas la plej bona, mine is for all reasons the best.

Why he is happy today, for every reason he is happy today.
Mine is the best reason, mine is for all reasons the best.

THE PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.

189. The past passive participle expresses an act or condition as having been undergone by the person or thing indicated by the word modified. This participle ends in -ita, as vidita, having been seen:

189. The past passive participle expresses an act or condition as something that has been experienced by the person or thing indicated by the word it modifies. This participle ends in -ita, as in vidita, having been seen:

La prezo pagita de vi estis tro granda, the price paid by you was too great.
La punita infano ploras, the (having-been) punished child is crying.
Mi aĉetos bonefaritajn gantojn, I shall buy well-made gloves.
Li serĉis la forgesitan bileton, he looked for the forgotten ticket.

The price you paid was too high, the price paid by you was too great.
The punished child is crying, the (having-been) punished child is crying.
I will buy well-made gloves, I shall buy well-made gloves.
He searched for the forgotten ticket, he looked for the forgotten ticket.

THE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.

190. The compound tense formed by combining the past passive participle with the present tense of the verb esti expresses an act or condition which has been undergone by the subject of the verb. It is called the perfect passive tense. The conjugation of the verb vidi in this tense is as follows:

190. The compound tense created by combining the past passive participle with the present tense of the verb esti indicates an act or condition that has been experienced by the subject of the verb. It is known as the perfect passive tense. The conjugation of the verb vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estas vidita, I have been seen (I am having-been-seen).
vi estas vidita, you have been seen.
li (ŝi, ĝi) estas vidita, he (she, it) has been seen.
ni estas viditaj, we have been seen.
vi estas viditaj, you have been seen.
ili estas viditaj, they have been seen.

I have been seen, I have been seen.
You have been seen, you have been seen.
He (she, it) has been seen, he (she, it) has been seen.
We have been seen, we have been seen.
You have been seen, you have been seen.
They have been seen, they have been seen.

THE PREPOSITION LAŬ.

191. In expressing that in accordance with which something is done, takes place, moves, etc., the preposition laŭ is used:

191. When indicating how something is done, happens, moves, etc., the preposition laŭ is used:

Li agis laŭ sia opinio, he acted in accordance with his own opinion.
Mi faros ĝin laŭ bona metodo, I shall do it according to a good method.
Laŭ kia maniero li agis? In what manner did he act?
Mi marŝis laŭ la strato, I walked down (or up) the street.
Li iris laŭ la rivero per tiu vojo, he went along the river by that road.
Nuboj nigraj kuris laŭ la ĉielo, black clouds raced along the sky.
Ĝi kuŝas laŭlonge de la domo, it lies lengthwise of the house.

He acted according to his own opinion, he acted in accordance with his own opinion.
I will do it the right way, I shall do it according to a good method.
How did he act? In what manner did he act?
I walked down the street, I walked down (or up) the street.
He went along the river by that road, he went along the river by that road.
Black clouds raced across the sky, black clouds raced along the sky.
It lies along the side of the house, it lies lengthwise of the house.

THE SUFFIX -EM-.

192. The suffix -em- indicates a tendency or inclination toward that which is expressed in the root:

192. The suffix -em- shows a tendency or inclination towards what is conveyed in the root:

agema, active.
mallaborema, lazy.
pacema, peaceful, pacific.
pensema, pensive, thoughtful.
Vocabulary.
atend-i, to wait (for), to expect.
ĉial, for every reason (188).
ĉiam, always (187).
gazet-o, magazine, gazette.
ĵurnal-o, journal, paper.
kompat-i, to pity.
larm-o, tear.
laŭ, according to (191).
manier-o, manner, way.
mov-i, to move (transitive)
okup-i, to occupy.
pal-a, pale.
polic-o, police.
trankvil-a, calm, tranquil.
LA PERDITA INFANO.

Dum mi estis atendanta hieraŭ posttagmeze en la stacidomo, mi subite rimarkis palan sinjorinon kun larmoj en ŝiaj okuloj. Ŝi rigardis ĉien kun esprimo de nekaŝebla timo, kaj estis videble maltrankvila. Ŝi serĉis du aŭ tri minutojn inter la personoj ĉirkaŭ si, kaj fine ŝi vidis bluevestitan policanon, kiu estis parolanta al unu el la gardistoj. Ŝi rapide diris kelkajn vortojn al li, kaj tuj li ankaŭ komencis serĉi cie. Mi tre kompatis la ploreman sinjorinon, kaj kiam la policano preteriris, mi demandis ĉu mi ne povas helpi. Mi diris ke mi ne estos okupata (busy) ĝis la alveno de la vagonaro. Li respondis ke la filo de tiu virino estas perdita, kaj li donis al mi la sekvantan priskribon de la infano, laŭ la vortoj de la patrino: la knabo estas agema brunhara sesjarulo, kun bluaj okuloj, kaj li estas ruĝe vestita (dressed in red). Lia patrino estis ĵus aĉetinta sian bileton ĉe la giĉeto, kaj post kiam ŝi pagis la naŭdek cendojn por ĝi, subite ŝi rimarkis ke la infano ne estis kun ŝi. Kvankam ŝi jam serĉis ĉie, la filo ŝajnas ankoraŭ netrovebla. Ŝi multe timas pro li, kvankam li ĉiam estas bona knabo. Mi tuj komencis marŝi ĉien inter la personoj ĉirkaŭ mi, kaj fine eniris malgrandan ĉambron apud la horloĝo ĉe la fino de la stacidomo, kie estas vendataj tagĵurnaloj (newspapers), gazetoj kaj libroj. Tie antaŭ nemovebla tablo kovrita de brile koloritaj ĵurnaloj staris malgranda ruĝevestita knabo. Mi diris al li "Mia studema juna amiko, oni ne vojaĝas laŭ tiu metodo. Via patrino jam de longe atendas vin. Mi montros al vi kie ŝi estas." Li venis kun mi, kaj proksime de la pordo kie mi estis lasinta mian valizon staris la sinjorino. Ŝi estis ĉial ĝoja kiam ŝi vidis nin, kaj dankeme ĉirkaŭprenis la infanon.

While I was waiting yesterday afternoon at the station, I suddenly noticed a pale lady with tears in her eyes. She looked around with an expression of unmistakable fear and was visibly anxious. She searched for two or three minutes among the people around her and finally spotted a police officer in a blue uniform, who was talking to one of the guards. She quickly said a few words to him, and immediately he began searching as well. I felt very sorry for the crying lady, and when the officer walked by, I asked if I could help. I mentioned that I wouldn't be busy until the train arrived. He replied that the woman's son is missing and gave me the following description of the child, according to the mother's words: the boy is an energetic six-year-old with brown hair and blue eyes, and he is dressed in red. His mother had just bought her ticket at the counter, and after paying the ninety cents for it, she suddenly realized that the child was not with her. Although she had already searched everywhere, the son still seemed to be untraceable. She was very scared for him, even though he is always a good boy. I immediately started walking around among the people near me, and finally entered a small room next to the clock at the end of the station, where newspapers, magazines, and books are sold. There, in front of an unmoving table covered with brightly colored magazines, stood a small boy dressed in red. I said to him, "My eager young friend, you can’t travel this way. Your mother has been waiting for you for a long time. I’ll show you where she is." He came with me, and near the door where I had left my suitcase stood the lady. She was all smiles when she saw us and gratefully embraced her child.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The poor (to-be-pitied) lady whose little boy (son) was lost in the station yesterday afternoon was very uneasy about him for every reason. 2. She was pale and tearful (
plorema
) when I saw her, and looked in every direction in a most impatient manner. 3. There was an expression of fear upon her face and she went as quickly as possible to a nearby policeman, and said a few (
kelkajn
) words to him. 4. I heard the last words, and at once said to myself "It is now only ten minutes past two. 5. My train will leave (
foriros
) at half-past two, so I have time to help." 6. I said to the blue-garbed policeman "During the next (
sekvontajn
) twenty minutes I shall not be busy. Do you desire my help?" 7. He answered "Yes, you are very kind (
ĝentila
). The son of that lady has been lost. 8. According to her description, he is a yellow-haired blue-eyed five-year-old, and apparently (
ŝajne
) too restless (
movema
). 9. I shall find him as soon as possible, nevertheless I shall gladly accept your help. 10. The child is dressed in white and wears a red hat." 11. As (
ĉar
) I am not at all lazy (
mallaborema
), I went along the stationary (
nemoveblaj
) tables as-far-as the end of the station, and there I saw that-sort-of child, looking at the magazines and newspapers. 12. I led him to the lady, who with tears in her eyes was just going to telephone to her husband.
LESSON XLI.
THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB ĈIEL.

193. The distributive adverb of manner, related to the distributive pronoun ĉiu, is ĉiel, in every way, in every manner:

193. The distributive adverb of manner, related to the distributive pronoun ĉiu, is ĉiel, in every way, in every manner:

Li povas ĉiel prepari ĝin, he can prepare it in every manner.
Li estos ĉiel helpata, he will be helped in every way.

He can prepare it in any way, he can prepare it in every manner.
He will be helped in every way, he will be helped in every way.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB ĈIOM.

194. The distributive adverb of quantity, related to the distributive pronoun ĉiu, is ĉiom, every quantity, the whole, all:

194. The distributive adverb of quantity, related to the distributive pronoun ĉiu, is ĉiom, every quantity, the whole, all:

Li prenis multe da sukero, sed ne ĉiom da ĝi, he took a great deal of sugar, but not all of it.
Li elprenis ĉiom de la teo el la teujo, he took all of the tea out of the tea caddy.

He took a lot of sugar, but not all of it, he took a great deal of sugar, but not all of it.
He took all of the tea out of the tea caddy, he took all of the tea out of the tea caddy.

THE PLUPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.

195. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle with the past tense of the verb esti expresses an act or condition which had been undergone by the subject of the verb at some point in past time. It is called the pluperfect passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

195. The compound tense formed by combining the past passive participle with the past tense of the verb esti indicates an action or condition that had been experienced by the subject of the verb at some point in the past. This is known as the pluperfect passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estis vidita, I had been seen (I was having-been-seen).
vi estis vidita, you had been seen.
li (ŝi, ĝi) estis vidita, he (she, it) had been seen.
ni estis viditaj, we had been seen.
vi estis viditaj, you had been seen.
ili estis viditaj, they had been seen.

I had been seen.
You had been seen.
He (she, it) had been seen.
We had been seen.
You had been seen.
They had been seen.

THE FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.

196. The compound tense made by combining the past passive participle with the future tense of the verb esti expresses an act or condition which will have been undergone by the subject of the verb at some point in future time. It is called the future perfect passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

196. The compound tense created by combining the past passive participle with the future tense of the verb esti expresses an act or condition that will have been experienced by the subject of the verb at some point in the future. This is known as the future perfect passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estos vidita, I shall have been seen (shall be having-been-seen).
vi estos vidita, you will have been seen.
li (ŝi, ĝi) estos vidita, he (she, it) will have been seen.
ni estos viditaj, we shall have been seen.
vi estos viditaj, you will have been seen.
ili estos viditaj, they will have been seen.

I will have been seen, I shall have been seen.
You will have been seen, you will have been seen.
He (she, it) will have been seen, he (she, it) will have been seen.
We will have been seen, we shall have been seen.
You will have been seen, you will have been seen.
They will have been seen, they will have been seen.

THE EXPRESSION OF MATERIAL.

197. The material out of which something is made or constructed is expressed by use of the preposition el. As in English, an adjective may be used instead of the prepositional phrase unless a verb or participle lays stress upon the fact of construction:

197. The material used to make or construct something is indicated by the preposition el. Similar to English, an adjective can replace the prepositional phrase unless a verb or participle emphasizes the aspect of construction:

La tablo estas farita el ligno, the table is made out of wood.
La tablo estas ligna (el ligno), the table is wooden (of wood).
La infanoj konstruis domon el neĝo, the children built a house of (out of) snow.
Oni faras supon el asparago, they make soup out of asparagus.

The table is made of wood, the table is made out of wood.
The table is wooden (made of wood), the table is wooden (of wood).
The children built a house out of snow, the children built a house of (out of) snow.
They make soup from asparagus, they make soup out of asparagus.

THE SUFFIX -ET-.

198. The suffix -et- indicates diminution of degree in that which is expressed by the root. It is thus in contrast to the augmentative suffix -eg- (122). Sometimes an affectionate significance is given:

198. The suffix -et- shows a smaller or lesser degree of what the root expresses. This is in contrast to the augmentative suffix -eg- (122). Sometimes it carries a warm or affectionate meaning:

beleta, pretty.
dormeti, to doze.
floreto, floweret, floret.
lageto, pond, small lake.
libreto, booklet.
monteto, hill.
rideti, to smile.
vojeto, path.
Vocabulary.
best-o, animal.
ĉiel, in every way (193).
ĉiom, the whole, all (194).
donac-o, gift, present.
drap-o, cloth.
hund-o, dog.
konsist-i, to consist.
leon-o, lion.
lud-i, to play.
material-o, material.
posed-i, to own, to possess.
pup-o, doll.
rost-i, to roast.
verŝ-i, to pour.
LA DONACO.

Mi volas doni beletan donacon al mia plej juna fratino morgaŭ, sed ju pli mi pensas pri ĝi, des pli malfacile estas decidi pri la afero. Estas duoble malfacile, ĉar ŝi jam posedas ĉiun ludilon (toy) kiun oni povas imagi. Ĉiu el ŝiaj amikoj ĝoje donacas (make presents) al tiel afabla knabino. Tamen mi iris hieraŭ matene al ludilobutiko, kaj rigardis la ludilojn tie. Multaj konsistis el diversaj pupoj, grandaj kaj malgrandaj, kaj belege vestitaj. Sed mi estas certa ke la fratineto jam posedas sufiĉe da pupoj—tial mi ne aĉetis tian ludilon, kvankam ili estas ĉiam interesaj al knabinetoj. Sur unu tablo kuŝis ĉiaj malgrandaj bestoj, faritaj el ligno, drapo, kaj diversaj materialoj. Estis ĉevaletoj, hundetoj, katetoj, kaj flavaj leonetoj. Proksime de tiuj staris malgrandaj brile koloritaj vagonaroj, kiujn oni povis rapide movi, laŭ la maniero de grandaj vagonaroj. Etaj policanoj staris apude, kaj estis ĉial malfacile elekti la plej interesan el tiom da interesaj ludiloj. Baldaŭ mi rimarkis knabineton apud mi. Ĉiel ŝi tre similis al mia fratino, kaj tial mi decidis elekti tian ludilon, kia estos elektita plej frue de la nekonata knabineto. Mi atendis trankvile, kaj eĉ legis unu aŭ du paĝojn de miaj ĵus aĉetitaj gazetoj kaj tagĵurnaloj. Fine la beleta infano estis rigardinta preskaŭ ĉiom de la ludiloj kiuj okupis la tablojn, dum la kompatinda servistino lace ŝin sekvis. Tiam la knabineto kriis "Ho, kiel beleta pupodomo! Estas litoj en la dormoĉambroj; legomoj kaj rostita viando, faritaj el papero, kuŝas sur la tablo en la manĝo-ĉambro; kaj mi vidas tie pupon, kiu certe ĵus faris la teon, kaj estas elverŝonta ĝin en tiujn tasetojn!" Tuj mi faris decidon laŭ la plezuro de la knabineto, kaj baldaŭ la pupodomo estis aĉetita por mia fratineto.

I want to give my youngest sister a beautiful gift tomorrow, but the more I think about it, the harder it gets to decide. It's even more difficult because she already has every toy imaginable. All her friends happily give gifts to such a lovely girl. However, I went to a toy store yesterday morning and looked at the toys there. Many were various dolls, big and small, beautifully dressed. But I’m sure my sister already has plenty of dolls—so I didn’t buy one, even though they’re always interesting to little girls. On one table were all sorts of small animals made from wood, fabric, and various materials. There were little horses, puppies, kittens, and yellow lions. Nearby were small brightly colored wagons that could be moved quickly, just like the big ones. Little policemen stood nearby, and it was really hard to choose the most interesting toy from so many appealing options. Soon I noticed a little girl next to me. She really looked like my sister, so I decided to choose a toy that would be picked first by the unknown girl. I waited patiently and even read a page or two from my newly purchased newspapers and magazines. Finally, the little girl had looked at almost all the toys occupying the tables, while a tired salesgirl followed her around. Then the little girl exclaimed, "Oh, what a beautiful dollhouse! There are beds in the bedrooms; vegetables and roasted meat made of paper are on the table in the dining room; and I see a doll who must have just made the tea and is about to pour it into those little cups!" Right away, I made a decision based on the little girl's delight, and soon the dollhouse was bought for my sister.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. My pale delicate (malsanema) little sister is always happy when she has a new toy. 2. Her dolls were made out of cloth when she was a very little girl, because otherwise she could too easily break them. 3. But yesterday my grandmother made a present of a doll (presented a doll) to her, and since that moment she has been as happy as possible. 4. I have not seen tears in her eyes, or heard a cross (koleretan) word. 5. This new doll is made out of cloth, and its dress consists of very pretty material. 6. My sister decided that she likes it better than her other playthings, and I think that those poor (kompatindaj) other dolls will soon have been forgotten. 7. The doll seems in every way more interesting than the little animals made out of cloth or wood, which are on the table with her dolls. 8. She possesses a little dog and a little cat, and a little lion, and until yesterday she had a wooden pony. 9. The pony is already broken, and has been given away to a poor (malriĉa) child, the daughter of our laundress (lavistino). 10. My sister possesses a small train of cars which she can move everywhere, and she is very fond of (ametas) this toy. 11. There are small sacks of sand in the cars, and usually she is happy when she is pouring the sand out of one of these into another, or putting all of the sand into a box, by means of a small spoon. 12. For every reason I am doubly glad today that she is busied in this manner (tiamaniere). 13. I wish to take a walk along that pleasant path toward the hill, instead of waiting for my little sister. 14. I must buy the meat to roast for supper, before I come home from my walk.

1. My pale, delicate little sister is always happy when she gets a new toy. 2. When she was very little, her dolls were made out of cloth because otherwise, she could easily break them. 3. But yesterday, my grandmother gave her a doll, and since that moment, she has been as happy as can be. 4. I haven't seen tears in her eyes or heard her say anything cross. 5. This new doll is made out of cloth and has a dress made from really pretty material. 6. My sister has decided that she likes it better than her other toys, and I think those poor other dolls will soon be forgotten. 7. The doll seems much more interesting than the little animals made of cloth or wood that are on the table with her dolls. 8. She has a little dog, a little cat, and a little lion, and until yesterday, she had a wooden pony. 9. The pony is already broken and has been given to a poor child, the daughter of our laundress. 10. My sister has a small train of cars that she can move around, and she really loves this toy. 11. There are small bags of sand in the cars, and she is usually happy when she's pouring sand from one to another, or putting all the sand into a box with a little spoon. 12. For all these reasons, I’m extra glad today that she is busy like this. 13. I want to take a walk along that nice path toward the hill instead of waiting for my little sister. 14. I need to buy meat to roast for dinner before I come home from my walk.

LESSON XLII.
THE FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.

199. The future passive participle, expressing that which will be or is about to be undergone by the person or thing indicated by the word modified, ends in -ota, as vidota, about to be seen:

199. The future passive participle, indicating something that will be or is about to be experienced by the person or thing described by the modified word, ends in -ota, like vidota, about to be seen:

La punota infano mallaŭte ploretas, the child about to be punished whimpers softly.
La formovota tablo estas peza, the table about to be moved away is heavy.
La domo konstruota de li estos bela, the house going to be built by him will be beautiful.

The child about to be punished whimpers softly, the child about to be punished whimpers softly.
The table about to be moved is heavy, the table about to be moved away is heavy.
The house he is going to build will be beautiful, the house going to be built by him will be beautiful.

THE PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES.

200. The compound tenses formed by combining the future passive participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of esti represent an act or condition as about to be undergone in the present, past, or future, respectively. These are called passive periphrastic future tenses. Except when great accuracy is desired, these tenses, like those of the active voice (153) are not often used. A synopsis of vidi in the first person singular of these tenses is as follows:

200. The compound tenses created by combining the future passive participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of esti express an action or condition as about to be experienced in the present, past, or future, respectively. These are known as passive periphrastic future tenses. Unless great precision is needed, these tenses, like those of the active voice (153), are not commonly used. A summary of vidi in the first person singular of these tenses is as follows:

Present Periphrastic Future.
mi estas vidota, I am about to be (going to be) seen.
Past Periphrastic Future.
mi estis vidota, I was about to be (going to be) seen.
Future Periphrastic Future.
mi estos vidota, I shall be about to be (going to be) seen.
THE GENERIC ARTICLE.

201. The article is placed before nouns used in a comprehensive or universal sense, indicating a whole class, kind, substance, or abstract quality. In such use it is called the generic article:

201. The article is used before nouns that refer to a general or universal sense, indicating an entire class, type, substance, or abstract quality. When used this way, it’s called the generic article:

La pacienco estas laŭdinda, patience is praiseworthy.
La vivo surtera estas nur parto de la vivo ĉiama, life on earth is merely a part of the life eternal.
La viro estas pli forta ol la virino, man is stronger than woman.

Patience is commendable, patience is praiseworthy.
Life on earth is just a part of eternal life, life on earth is merely a part of the life eternal.
Men are stronger than women, man is stronger than woman.

Cf. French La patience est amère, mais son fruit est doux, patience is bitter, but its fruit is sweet, German Das Leben ist kurtz, life is short, Italian La speranza è il pan de miseri, hope is the poor man's bread, Spanish Las riquezas son bagajes de la fortuna, riches are the baggage of fortune, etc. In English the generic article (as in "the life eternal" above) may often be replaced by omission of both "a" and "the."

Cf. French La patience est amère, mais son fruit est doux, patience is bitter, but its fruit is sweet, German Das Leben ist kurz, life is short, Italian La speranza è il pane dei miseri, hope is the poor man's bread, Spanish Las riquezas son bagajes de la fortuna, riches are the baggage of fortune, etc. In English, the generic article (as in "the eternal life" above) can often be left out altogether.

THE SUFFIX -EC-.

202. The suffix -ec- is used to form words indicating the abstract quality of that which is expressed in the root, or formation, to which it is attached:

202. The suffix -ec- is used to create words that denote the abstract quality of what is expressed in the root or formation it is added to:

amikeco, friendship.
ofteco, frequency.
indeco, worthiness.
dankemeco, thankfulness.
fleksebleco, flexibility.
patreco, fatherhood.
patrineco, motherhood.
maltrankvileco, uneasiness.
Vocabulary.
bord-o, bank, shore.
brak-o, arm.
fabrik-i, to manufacture.
krut-a, steep.
lan-o, wool.
mebl-o, piece of furniture.
pas-i, to pass (intrans.).
pitoresk-a, picturesque.
pont-o, bridge.
sonor-i, to ring (intrans.).
surtut-o, overcoat.
sving-i, to swing, to brandish.
ŝip-o, ship.
ŝton-o, stone.
vapor-o, steam.
vetur-i, to travel (in a vehicle).
SUR LA VAPORŜIPO.

Unu el la plezuroj de la kampara vivo konsistas el la multenombraj (numerous) okazoj por veturi ĉien, kien oni volas iri, per kvietaj pitoreskaj vojoj. Ni havas ankoraŭ unu (still one, yet another) okazon por plezuro en nia vilaĝo, ĉar ni povas veturi per vaporŝipo sur la bela lago ĉe kies bordo kuŝas la vilaĝo. Hieraŭ du kuzinoj venis por viziti ĉe ni, kaj tuj post la tagmanĝo ni decidis promeni laŭ tiu pitoreska vojeto al la lago. Kiam ni alvenis al la lago, ni rimarkis ke beleta vaporŝipeto estis ĵus forironta. Tial mi aĉetis tri biletojn, kaj kiel eble plej rapide ni suriris la ŝipeton. La sonoriloj (bells) estis jam sonorintaj, kaj tuj post kiam ni transmarŝis la ponteton, de la tero al la planko de la ŝipeto, oni forprenis la ponteton. Kelkaj personoj kiuj estis ankoraŭ sur la tero kuris kun granda rapideco al la ponteto. Ili svingis la brakojn kaj la ombrelojn tre energie, sed la ŝipeto ne atendis eĉ unu minuton. La personoj ŝajnis tre koleraj pro sia malfrueco, kaj ankoraŭ pli koleraj pro la trankvila foriro de la ŝipeto. Ĉiu sur la ŝipeto ridetis, ĉar la koleremo (irascibility) estas ĉiam amuza. Tiam ĉiu komencis sin amuzi tiel, kiel li deziris. Mi estis kunportinta dikan lanan surtuton, sed pro la varmeco de la vetero mi ne bezonis ĝin, kaj lasis ĝin sur apuda seĝo. Ni atendis kun plezuro por vidi la krutajn montetojn kiuj estos videblaj tuj kiam la ŝipeto estos pasinta preter malgranda arbaro. La pitoreskeco de la belaj montetoj estas difektota, ĉar grandaj fabrikejoj estas jam konstruataj ĉe la montpiedoj. La ŝtonoj por la muroj jam kuŝas pretaj apude, kune kun grandaj stangoj kaj aliaj pecoj da ligno. Tie oni fabrikos tablojn, seĝojn, kaj aliajn meblojn el zorge elektita ligno.

One of the pleasures of country living is the countless opportunities to travel wherever you want, along quiet, picturesque roads. We still have one more chance for enjoyment in our village, as we can take a steamboat on the beautiful lake by which the village rests. Yesterday, two cousins came to visit us, and right after lunch, we decided to stroll along that scenic path to the lake. When we arrived at the lake, we noticed a lovely little steamboat was just about to leave. So, I bought three tickets, and as quickly as possible, we boarded the boat. The bells had already rung, and just after we crossed the bridge from land to the boat’s deck, they removed the bridge. A few people who were still on land ran quickly toward the bridge. They waved their arms and umbrellas energetically, but the boat didn’t wait even a minute. The people seemed very angry about their lateness, and even angrier about the calm departure of the boat. Everyone on the boat smiled, as irritation is always amusing. Then, everyone started to enjoy themselves however they pleased. I had brought a thick wool coat, but due to the warm weather, I didn’t need it, so I left it on a nearby chair. We waited eagerly to see the steep hills that would come into view as soon as the boat passed by a small forest. The beauty of the lovely hills will be damaged, as large factories are already being built at the foot of the mountains. The stones for the walls are already lying nearby, along with large beams and other pieces of wood. They will be making tables, chairs, and other furniture from carefully selected wood.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. It is difficult in every way to select a present for a child who already possesses enough toys. 2. In a toy-shop yesterday I examined the dolls made out of woolen cloth and other material, and also looked at the various little animals. 3. There were ponies, little dogs and little lions and camels. 4. There were also little sets of furniture (126), which consisted of tables, sofas and chairs. 5. On the tables were small plates containing vegetables, fruits and roast (189) meat, entirely made out of colored paper. 6. There were also little cups and tumblers of thin glass, into which one could pour water or milk. 7. As (ĉar) one dollar was all (194) of the money which I had in my purse, I left the shop. 8. I walked along a stony picturesque path toward the lake, swinging my overcoat on my arm, while I thought over (pripensis) the difficulty, and tried to decide what sort of present to choose. 9. The steamboat to B—— was just leaving, so I went across the footbridge (ponteto) on to the pretty little ship, while its bells were ringing, and rode an hour in the open (libera) air. 10. The shore which we passed is very picturesque, but its beauty is about to be spoiled, for a large furniture factory is going to be built between that steep hill and the lake. 11. Its proximity to the water is necessary, for water-power (akvoforto) will be used.

1. It’s tough in every way to pick a gift for a child who already has plenty of toys. 2. Yesterday at a toy store, I checked out the dolls made from woolen fabric and other materials, and also looked at the different small animals. 3. There were ponies, little dogs, and small lions and camels. 4. There were also tiny furniture sets (126), which included tables, sofas, and chairs. 5. On the tables were small plates with vegetables, fruits, and roasted (189) meat, all made from colored paper. 6. There were also little cups and glasses made of thin glass, where you could pour water or milk. 7. Since I only had one dollar (194) in my wallet, I left the shop. 8. I walked along a stony, picturesque path toward the lake, swinging my overcoat over my arm while I thought about (pripensis) the dilemma and tried to figure out what kind of gift to get. 9. The steamboat to B—— was just leaving, so I crossed the footbridge (ponteto) onto the charming little ship while its bells were ringing, and rode for an hour in the open (libera) air. 10. The shore we passed was very picturesque, but its beauty is about to be ruined, as a large furniture factory is going to be built between that steep hill and the lake. 11. Its closeness to the water is necessary because they will be using water power (akvoforto).

LESSON XLIII.
THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN.

203. The indefinite pronoun (and pronominal adjective) iu, any one, a certain one, presents the idea of some person or thing, without definitely characterizing it:

203. The indefinite pronoun (and pronominal adjective) iu, anyone, a certain one, conveys the idea of some person or thing without specifically identifying it:

Mi parolas pri iu, kiun vi konas, I am talking about a certain one whom you know.
Mi vizitis iujn el viaj amikoj, I visited some of your friends.
Mi havas kelkajn pomojn, sed iuj ne estas bonaj, I have several apples, but certain ones are not good.
Iuj pontoj estas bone faritaj, some bridges are well made.

I'm talking about someone you know, I am talking about a certain one whom you know.
I visited some of your friends, I visited some of your friends.
I have a few apples, but some of them aren't good, I have several apples, but certain ones are not good.
Some bridges are well built, some bridges are well made.

204. The indefinite pronoun iu has a possessive or genitive form ies, somebody's, someone's, a certain one's:

204. The indefinite pronoun iu has a possessive or genitive form ies, somebody's, someone's, a certain person's:

Mi tuŝis ies brakon, I touched someone's arm.
Ĉu ies surtuto kuŝas sur la tablo? Is anybody's overcoat lying on the table?
Ies ludiloj estas rompitaj, someone's playthings are broken.

I touched someone's arm, I touched someone's arm.
Is anyone's overcoat lying on the table? Is anybody's overcoat lying on the table?
Somebody's toys are broken, someone's playthings are broken.

PARTICIPIAL NOUNS.

205. Nouns may be formed from participles, by substituting the noun ending -o for the adjectival ending -a. Such participial nouns indicate persons temporarily or non-professionally performing or undergoing that which is expressed by the root:

205. Nouns can be created from participles by replacing the adjectival ending -a with the noun ending -o. These participial nouns represent people who are temporarily or non-professionally doing or experiencing what the root expresses:

helpanto, one who is helping, an assistant.
elpensinto, one who has thought out something, an inventor.
legonto, one who is about to read.
vidato, one (being) seen.
sendito, one (having been) sent, an envoy.
la juĝoto, the one about to be judged, the accused.

helpanto, someone who is helping, an assistant.
elpensinto, someone who has come up with an idea, an inventor.
legonto, someone who is about to read.
vidato, someone (being) seen.
sendito, someone (who has been) sent, an envoy.
la juĝoto, the one about to be judged, the accused.

Participial nouns must not be confused with nouns formed by the suffix -ist- (172) expressing professional or permanent occupation: rajdanto, a rider, rajdisto, jockey, horseman, juĝanto, a judge (of something), juĝisto, judge (professional), laboranto, a person working, laboristo, laborer.

Participial nouns should not be mixed up with nouns that use the suffix -ist- (172) to indicate a profession or a permanent occupation: rajdanto, a rider, rajdisto, jockey, horseman, juĝanto, a judge (of something), juĝisto, judge (professional), laboranto, a person working, laboristo, laborer.

THE PREFIX EK-.

206. Sudden or momentary action, or the beginning of an action or state, is indicated by the prefix ek-:

206. Sudden or brief action, or the start of an action or state, is shown by the prefix ek-:

ekdormi, to fall asleep.
ekkanti, to burst into song.
ekiri, to set out, to start.
ekridi, to burst into a laugh
ekrigardi, to glance at.

ekdormi, to fall asleep.
ekkanti, to burst into song.
ekiri, to set out, to start.
ekridi, to burst into laughter.
ekrigardi, to glance at.

THE SUFFIX -ID-.

207. Words indicating the young of, the child of, the descendant of, are formed by use of the suffix -id-:

207. Words that refer to the young of, the child of, the descendant of, are created by adding the suffix -id-:

ĉevalido, colt (from ĉevalo, horse).
hundido, puppy (from hundo, dog).
katido, kitten (from kato, cat).
leonido, a lion's whelp (from leono, lion).
reĝidino, a king's daughter, a princess (from reĝo, king).

ĉevalido, colt (from ĉevalo, horse).
hundido, puppy (from hundo, dog).
katido, kitten (from kato, cat).
leonido, a lion's cub (from leono, lion).
reĝidino, a king's daughter, a princess (from reĝo, king).

Vocabulary.
amas-o, heap, throng.
daŭr-i, to continue.
hirund-o, swallow. (bird).
hom-o, human being.
humor-o, temper, humor.
ies, some one's (204).
iu, some one (203).
kugl-o, bullet.
milit-i, to fight, to make war.
ost-o, bone.
renvers-i, to upset, to overturn.
sign-o, sign, mark.
tend-o, tent.
tru-o, hole.

Cf. the difference between viro, man (in contrast to virino, woman), and homo, man in the generic sense, including both men and women.

See the difference between viro, man (as opposed to virino, woman), and homo, man in the broader sense, encompassing both men and women.

LA NESTO SUR LA TENDO.

Unufoje iu reĝo estis farinta militon kontraŭ la homoj de lando ĉe la bordo de pitoreska rivero. La soldatoj ne venis tien per vaporŝipoj, sed estis konstruintaj ponton trans la rivero, por la veturiloj (vehicles). Estis necese resti kelkan tempon apud urbo kiun la reĝo volis ekataki, kaj li havis grandan tendaron (encampment) antaŭ tiu urbo. Unu tagon en la daŭro (course) de la milito, iuj el la soldatoj pasis preter la tendo de la reĝo, laŭ la ŝtona vojeto laŭ kiu ili ĉiutage marŝis por gardi la tendaron. Unu el ĉi tiuj ekrimarkis ke hirundo estas konstruinta sian neston sur la reĝa tendo. Sur la nesto, kiu estis bone konstruita el koto, sidis trankvile la hirundo. Dum la soldatoj svingis la brakojn kaj ekridis unu post la alia, pri la kuraĝa birdo, la reĝo aŭdis ies voĉon. Li elvenis el sia tendo por eltrovi kial la parolantoj faras tiom da bruo, kaj kial ili tiel ekkriis kaj ekridis. Kiam la viroj montris al li la birdon, li diris kun bonhumora rideto, "Tiu hirundo estos mia gasto. Ĉiuj el la militistoj certe zorgos de nun pri la hirundo kaj la hirundidoj." Tial la nesto restis netuŝata en la daŭro de ĉiu batalo. Kelkaj kugloj pasis preter ĝi, sed la trankvileco de la birdo daŭris same kiel antaŭe. Fine la reĝo venkis, per kruelega batalo. Tuj la venkintoj forportis la tendojn, kune kun multaj militkaptitoj (prisoners of war). Nur la tendon de la reĝo oni lasis tie, ĉar la reĝo diris ke ĝi nun apartenas al la hirundo. Ĝi jam estis malnova kaj eluzita, tra kiu la pluvo eniris per multe da truoj. Sed ĝi ankoraŭ staris, ĝis iu tago somera kiam la hirundidoj povis jam bone flugi. Tiam la vento subite renversis ĝin, kaj ĝi ekfalis, kaj kuŝis, amaso da ĉifonoj, inter multe da kugloj, homaj ostoj, kaj la ceteraj malgajaj postsignoj (traces) de ies venko sur la batalejo.

Once upon a time, a king was waging war against the people of a land by a picturesque river. The soldiers didn’t arrive by steamships; instead, they built a bridge across the river for their vehicles. They needed to stay for a while next to a city that the king wanted to attack, and he had a large encampment set up before that city. One day, during the course of the war, some of the soldiers passed by the king’s tent along the stony path they walked every day to guard the encampment. One of them noticed that a swallow had built its nest on the royal tent. On the well-constructed mud nest sat the swallow, resting peacefully. As the soldiers waved their arms and laughed at the brave bird, the king heard someone’s voice. He came out of his tent to find out why the speakers were making so much noise and why they were laughing and shouting. When the men pointed out the bird to him, he said with a cheerful smile, “That swallow will be my guest. All the soldiers will certainly take care of the swallow and its chicks from now on.” So, the nest remained untouched throughout the battles. A few bullets passed by it, but the bird's calmness persisted just as before. In the end, the king won after a brutal battle. Immediately, the victors took down the tents along with many prisoners of war. Only the king's tent was left behind because the king said it now belonged to the swallow. It was already old and worn out, with many holes allowing the rain to come through. But it still stood until one summer day when the chicks could already fly well. Then the wind suddenly knocked it over, and it fell, lying in a heap of rags among many bullets, human bones, and the somber remnants of someone’s victory on the battlefield.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. There is a pretty story about a swallow which built its nest for its young (idoj) on the king's tent. 2. The soldiers who were walking along the steep path past the tent glanced at it, and caught sight of (206) the bird. 3. Some of them burst into a laugh, and gestured (svingis la brakon) toward the bird, to point it out to their comrades. 4. The good-humored king put on a thick woolen overcoat, and came out of his tent, to inquire why his soldiers were conversing so noisily there. 5. The tent was an expensive one, and contained handsome furniture, as well as (kaj ankau) a bell which always rang as soon as (tuj kiam) one touched it. 6. The king immediately noticed the swallow's nest, and said with an amiable smile "Surely such a courageous bird is a worthy (154) guest for a king." 7. The warriors (172) cared for the swallow as much as possible during the course of the war. 8. When the victors departed, they left that tent there. 9. Finally the wind upset it, and it fell to the ground. 10. The young swallows already could fly, by (je) that time. 11. The battleground is covered with bullets, piles of human bones, and similar melancholy signs of war. 12. War (201) is wicked and shameful (154). 13. Why do kings and princes wish to make war upon each other (180)? 14. When their sons have gone away to (make) war, the mothers of the soldiers are very uneasy. 15. Perhaps those sons will be prisoners of war.

1. There's a nice story about a swallow that built its nest for its young on the king's tent. 2. The soldiers walking along the steep path past the tent glanced at it and spotted the bird. 3. Some of them burst out laughing and pointed at the bird to show it to their comrades. 4. The good-natured king put on a thick wool coat and came out of his tent to ask why his soldiers were chatting so loudly. 5. The tent was expensive and had nice furniture, as well as a bell that rang as soon as it was touched. 6. The king immediately noticed the swallow's nest and said with a friendly smile, "Surely such a brave bird is a worthy guest for a king." 7. The warriors took care of the swallow as much as they could during the war. 8. When the victors left, they abandoned that tent. 9. Eventually, the wind blew it over, and it fell to the ground. 10. By that time, the young swallows could already fly. 11. The battleground is littered with bullets, piles of human bones, and other sad signs of war. 12. War is cruel and shameful. 13. Why do kings and princes want to wage war against each other? 14. When their sons go off to war, the soldiers' mothers are very anxious. 15. Perhaps those sons will end up as prisoners of war.

LESSON XLIV.
THE INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE.

208. The indefinite adjective, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is ia, of any kind, some kind of, a certain kind of, expressing indefinitely the quality of a person or thing:

208. The indefinite adjective, which is related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is ia, meaning any kind of, some kind of, a certain kind of, expressing the quality of a person or thing in a vague manner:

Estas ia birdo sur tiu arbo, there is a bird of some sort on that tree.
Mi vidis iajn ostojn sur la tero, I saw some kind of bones on the ground.
Estas ia homo en tiu tendo, there is some sort of human being in that tent.

There is a bird on that tree, there is a bird of some sort on that tree.
I saw some bones on the ground, I saw some kind of bones on the ground.
There is a person in that tent, there is some sort of human being in that tent.

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB OF PLACE.

209. The indefinite adverb of place, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is ie, anywhere, somewhere, in (at) a certain place. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by ie, the ending -n is added (121):

209. The indefinite adverb of place, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is ie, anywhere, somewhere, in (at) a certain place. If the verb in the sentence shows movement toward the place indicated by ie, the ending -n is added (121):

Ie en tiu arbaro estas leono, somewhere in that forest is a lion.
Ie malantaŭ la soldatoj vi trovos amason da kugloj, somewhere behind the soldiers you will find a heap of bullets.
La hirundo flugis ien, the swallow flew somewhere (in some direction).
Mi iros ien, sed mi ankoraŭ ne scias kien, I am going somewhere, but I do not yet know where.

Somewhere in that forest is a lion, somewhere in that forest is a lion.
Somewhere behind the soldiers you will find a heap of bullets, somewhere behind the soldiers you will find a heap of bullets.
The swallow flew somewhere, the swallow flew somewhere (in some direction).
I am going somewhere, but I do not yet know where, I am going somewhere, but I do not yet know where.

PREDICATE NOMINATIVES.

210. An adjective may stand in predicate relation to the direct object of a transitive verb, as well as to the subject of an intransitive verb (19). Such a predicate adjective, agreeing in number (21) with the object of the verb, but remaining in the nominative case, indicates the result produced by the verb upon the object, or the condition, quality or temporary state in which this object is found:

210. An adjective can relate to both the direct object of a transitive verb and the subject of an intransitive verb (19). This type of predicate adjective, which agrees in number (21) with the object's verb, but stays in the nominative case, shows the outcome caused by the verb on the object, or the condition, quality, or temporary state of the object:

Li faris la mondon feliĉa, he made the world happy (made-happy the world).
Mi lasis la knabon trankvila, I left the boy calm (undisturbed).
Mi trovis la truon jam farita, I found the hole already made.
Mi lasis ilin bone punitaj, I left them well punished.

He made the world happy, he made the world happy.
I left the boy calm, I left the boy undisturbed.
I found the hole already made, I found the hole already made.
I left them well punished, I left them well punished.

Cf. the difference between the examples given and sentences with the same words in an attributive (13) use:

Cf. the difference between the examples given and sentences with the same words in an attributive (13) use:

Dio faris la mondon feliĉan, God made the happy world.
Mi lasis la knabon trankvilan, I left the calm boy.
Mi trovis la jam faritan truon, I found the already made hole.
Mi lasis ilin bone punitajn, I left those who had been well punished.

Dio faris la mondon feliĉan, God made the happy world.
Mi lasis la knabon trankvilan, I left the calm boy.
Mi trovis la jam faritan truon, I found the already made hole.
Mi lasis ilin bone punitajn, I left those who had been well punished.

211. A noun may be used similarly in predicate relation after a transitive verb, as well as after an intransitive verb (20):

211. A noun can be used in a similar way in predicate relation after a transitive verb, as well as after an intransitive verb (20):

Ŝi nomis sian filinon Mario, she named her daughter Mary.
Oni elektis tiun reprezentanto, they elected that one representative.
Mi vidos lin venkinto, I shall see him a conqueror.
Mi trovis lin ŝtelisto, I found him a thief.

She named her daughter Mary, she named her daughter Mary.
They elected that representative, they elected that one representative.
I will see him as a conqueror, I will see him as a conqueror.
I found him to be a thief, I found him a thief.

Cf. the examples given and the following sentences using the same words in apposition (48) or attributive relation (13):

See the examples provided and the following sentences using the same words in apposition (48) or attributive relation (13):

Ŝi nomis sian filinon Marion, she named (mentioned) her daughter Mary.
Oni elektis tiun reprezentanton, they elected that representative.

She named her daughter Marion, she named (mentioned) her daughter Mary.
They elected that representative, they elected that representative.

Vocabulary.
anonc-i, to announce.
ia, some kind of (208).
ie, somewhere (209).
just-a, upright, just.
klar-a, distinct, clear.
kresk-i, to grow.
oportun-a, convenient.
paŝt-i, to feed (flocks, etc.).
plend-i, to complain.
proces-o, legal process.
rajt-o, right, privilege.
ripar-i, to mend, to repair.
sufer-i, to suffer.
ŝnur-o, string.
LA ĈEVALO KAJ LA SONORILO.

Unufoje en malgranda urbeto (town) en Italujo, la reĝo, kiun oni estis nominta Johano, metis grandan sonorilon en la vendejon. Li anoncis ke ĉiu plendanto pri maljusteco havos la rajton alvoki (to summon) juĝiston per tiu sonorilo. Tiam la juĝisto faros proceson en la juĝejo pro tiaj plendantoj. Oni multe uzis la sonorilon, laŭ la anonco de la reĝo, kaj multe da plendantoj ricevis justecon. Sammaniere, granda nombro da maljustuloj estis punata per ĝia helpo. Kiam okazis ke iu homo montris sin maljusta al alia, ĉi tiu anoncis la aferon per la oportuna sonorilo. Kiam iu faris la edzinon malfeliĉa, la sonorilo tuj sonoris por anonci ŝiajn suferojn, kaj por alvoki la juĝiston. Fine, oni tiom uzis la sonorilon justecan, ke la ŝnurego (rope) estis tute eluzita, kaj ĝia lasta uzinto okaze forrompis ĝin. Sed iu preterpasinto vidis la duonon de la ŝnurego kuŝanta sur la tero, kaj riparis ĝin per kelkaj branĉetoj de apuda arbo. Li pensis en si "Iu plendonto nun trovos ĝin preta por esti uzata." Rimarkinde, la branĉetoj ne velkis, sed restis verdaj, kaj kreskis kiel antaŭe.

In a small town in Italy, the king, who was named John, placed a large bell in the shop. He announced that anyone who complained about injustice would have the right to summon a judge using that bell. Then the judge would hold a trial in the court for such complainants. The bell was used frequently, according to the king's announcement, and many complainants received justice. Similarly, a large number of wrongdoers were punished with its help. When someone acted unjustly towards another, the victim would announce the matter using the convenient bell. If someone made a woman unhappy, the bell would ring immediately to announce her suffering and to summon the judge. Eventually, the bell was used so often for justice that the rope was completely worn out, and its last user accidentally broke it. However, a passerby saw half of the rope lying on the ground and repaired it with a few small branches from a nearby tree. He thought to himself, "Some complainant will now find it ready to be used." Remarkably, the branches didn't wither; they remained green and grew as they had before.

En la sama urbo loĝis riĉulo kiu estis forvendinta preskaŭ ĉiom de siaj domoj, ĉevaloj, ĉevaletoj, ĉevalidoj, hundoj kaj multekostaj vestoj, ĉar en sia maljuneco li amis nur la monon, kaj tiun li amegis. Li ankoraŭ posedis nur unu maljunan ĉevalon, kaj fine li forsendis eĉ tiun, por sin paŝti laŭ la vojo. En la daŭro de la tago, la ĉevalo ekrimarkis la branĉetojn kreskantajn sur la ŝnurego de la sonorilo. Tuj ĝi kaptis la branĉetojn, por manĝi ilin, kaj tuj la juĝisto aŭdis la sonorilon klare sonoranta. Li rapidis al la vendejo, kaj laŭte ekridis kiam li vidis ies ĉevalon tie. Li decidis puni la riĉulon ĉar tiu ĉi ne donis sufiĉe por manĝi al la maljuna militĉevalo.

In the same town lived a wealthy man who had sold off almost all of his houses, horses, ponies, foals, dogs, and expensive clothes because in his old age he only loved money, and that was the only thing he adored. He still owned just one old horse, and eventually, he sent that one away to graze by the road. During the day, the horse noticed the branches growing on the rope of the bell. Immediately, it grabbed the branches to eat them, and right away the judge heard the bell ringing clearly. He hurried to the store and laughed loudly when he saw someone's horse there. He decided to punish the wealthy man for not giving enough for the old war horse to eat.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The horse caught sight of the twigs with which a passer-by had mended the bellrope. 2. Because it wished to eat the green leaves, it seized the rope, and the bell immediately rang loudly and clearly. 3. The horse almost upset the poles which supported (160) the roof over the bell of-justice. 4. Any one (173) had the right to use this bell, to announce any kind of injustice. 5. The judge burst into a laugh as soon as he saw that sort of plaintiff standing there. 6. More often he saw human beings as plaintiffs, instead of animals. 7. When a laborer showed himself unkind to his wife and children, they could announce their sufferings by means of the convenient bell. 8. People called it the bell of justice. 9. According to everyone's opinion, it is the duty of a just judge to punish evildoers and unjust persons. 10. He decided that he would institute proceedings (faros proceson) against the owner (205) of the horse. 11. The man had driven away the horse, and it was grazing (sin paŝtanta) along the road. 12. It was some one's duty to give some sort of home to his horse. 13. The judge said, "I will find out whose horse that poor beast is, and will put a mark opposite the name of that man. I will not leave him alone (trankvila), but will show myself very severe."

1. The horse spotted the twigs that a passerby had used to fix the bell rope. 2. Wanting to eat the green leaves, it grabbed the rope, and the bell instantly rang loud and clear. 3. The horse nearly knocked over the poles that held up the roof over the bell of justice. 4. Anyone had the right to use this bell to report any kind of injustice. 5. The judge burst out laughing as soon as he saw that kind of plaintiff standing there. 6. Usually, he dealt with human plaintiffs rather than animals. 7. When a laborer was unkind to his wife and kids, they could ring the convenient bell to announce their suffering. 8. People called it the bell of justice. 9. According to everyone, it’s a just judge's duty to punish wrongdoers and unfair people. 10. He decided to start proceedings (faros proceson) against the horse's owner. 11. The man had driven away the horse, and it was grazing (sin paŝtanta) along the road. 12. It was someone's responsibility to provide a home for his horse. 13. The judge said, "I will figure out whose horse that poor creature is and put a mark next to that man's name. I won't let him be comfortable (trankvila), but I will be very strict."

LESSON XLV.
THE INDEFINITE TEMPORAL ADVERB.

212. The indefinite temporal adverb, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is iam, sometime, any time, ever, once upon a time:

212. The indefinite temporal adverb, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is iam, some time, any time, ever, once upon a time:

Iam mi rakontos la aferon al vi, sometime I will tell you the affair.
Reĝo iam loĝis tie, a king once (upon a time) dwelt there.
Ĉu vi iam faris proceson kontraŭ li? Did you ever go to law against him?

I’ll tell you about the situation, sometime I will tell you the affair.
A king once lived there, a king once (upon a time) dwelt there.
Have you ever taken legal action against him? Did you ever go to law against him?

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB IAL.

213. The indefinite adverb of motive or reason, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is ial, for any reason, for some reason, for certain reasons:

213. The indefinite adverb of motive or reason, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is ial, for any reason, for some reason, for certain reasons:

Ial li ne riparis la tendon, for some reason he did not repair the tent.
Ĉu vi opinias ke ial li maljuste suferas? Do you think that for any reason he is suffering unjustly?

Ial li ne riparis la tendon, for some reason he did not repair the tent.
Ĉu vi opinias ke ial li maljuste suferas? Do you think that for some reason he is suffering unfairly?

CAUSATIVE VERBS.

214. The suffix -ig- is used to form verbs indicating the causing, rendering or bringing about of that which is expressed in the root or formation to which it is attached. Verbs containing the suffix -ig- are called causative verbs and are always transitive (22).

214. The suffix -ig- is used to create verbs that indicate the causing, making, or bringing about of whatever is expressed in the root or base it’s attached to. Verbs with the suffix -ig- are known as causative verbs and are always transitive (22).

a. Causative verbs from adjectival roots indicate that the quality or condition expressed in the root is produced in the object of the verb:

a. Causative verbs from adjectival roots show that the quality or condition represented in the root is caused in the object of the verb:

dolĉigi, to sweeten, to assuage (from dolĉa, sweet).
moligi, to soften (from mola, soft).
plilongigi, to lengthen, to make longer (from pli longa, longer).
faciligi, to facilitate (from facila, easy).
beligi, to beautify (from bela, beautiful).

dolĉigi, to sweeten, to ease (from dolĉa, sweet).
moligi, to soften (from mola, soft).
plilongigi, to lengthen, to make longer (from pli longa, longer).
faciligi, to make easier (from facila, easy).
beligi, to beautify (from bela, beautiful).

The meaning often resembles that of the predicate nominative (210), as:

The meaning is often similar to that of the predicate nominative (210), as:

Li faris la mondon ĝoja, he made the world glad.
Li ĝojigis la mondon, he gladdened the world.

He made the world happy, he made the world glad.
He brought joy to the world, he gladdened the world.

b. Causative verbs from verbal roots indicate that the action expressed in the root is made to take place:

b. Causative verbs from verbal roots show that the action described in the root is caused to happen:

dormigi, to put to sleep (from dormi, to sleep).
konigi, to make acquainted with (from koni, to know).
mirigi, to astonish (from miri, to wonder).
mortigi, to kill (from morti, to die).

dormigi, to put to sleep (from dormi, to sleep).
konigi, to introduce (from koni, to know).
mirigi, to amaze (from miri, to wonder).
mortigi, to kill (from morti, to die).

c. Causative verbs may be formed from noun-roots, prepositions, adverbs, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits:

c. Causative verbs can be created from noun roots, prepositions, adverbs, prefixes, and suffixes when their meanings allow for it:

amasigi, to amass, to heap up (from amaso, pile).
kunigi, to unite, to bring together (from kun, with).
forigi, to do away with (from for, away).
ebligi, to render possible (-ebl-, 161).

amasigi, to gather, to pile up (from amaso, stack).
kunigi, to join together, to bring people together (from kun, with).
forigi, to eliminate (from for, away).
ebligi, to make possible (-ebl-, 161).

EMPHASIS BY MEANS OF JA.

215. The emphatic form of the verb, expressed in English by "do", "did", as in "I do study", "I did find it", "Do tell me", and by adverbs such as "certainly", "indeed", etc., is expressed in Esperanto by placing the adverb ja, indeed, before the verb:

215. The emphatic form of the verb, expressed in English by "do," "did," as in "I do study," "I did find it," "Do tell me," and by adverbs like "certainly," "indeed," etc., is expressed in Esperanto by placing the adverb ja, indeed, before the verb:

Vi ja mirigas min! You do astonish me!
Li ja estas justa juĝisto, he is indeed an upright judge.
Li ja havis tiun rajton, he did have that right.

You really amaze me! You do astonish me!
He is definitely a fair judge, he is indeed an upright judge.
He definitely had that right, he did have that right.

Vocabulary.
akompan-i, to accompany.
danĝer-o, danger.
gvid-i, to guide.
ial, for some reason (213).
iam, sometimes (212).
indiferent-a, indifferent.
ja, indeed (215).
kred-i, to believe.
salt-i, to leap, to jump.
tir-i, to draw, to pull.

Cf. the difference in meaning and use between esti indiferenta, to be indifferent, and ne esti zorga, not to be careful, both of which may be translated "not to care for":

Cf. the difference in meaning and use between esti indiferenta, to be indifferent, and ne esti zorga, not to be careful, both of which can be translated as "not to care for":

Li estas indiferenta al la libro, he does not care about (is indifferent to) the book.
Li ne zorgas pri la libro, he does not care for (take care of) the book.
Estas indiferente al mi ĉu li venos, aŭ ne, I do not care whether he is coming or not.

He is indifferent to the book, he does not care about the book.
He doesn't care about the book, he does not take care of the book.
I don't care whether he comes or not, I do not care whether he is coming or not.

ĈE LA MALNOVA PONTO.

Iam loĝis en nia urbeto junulo kiu havis afablan pli junan fratinon. Unu tagon en la daŭro de la bela printempa vetero la junulo invitis la fratinon veturi ien en veturilo tirata de du ĉevaloj. La invito ĝojigis la knabinon, kaj ŝi respondis ke ŝi kun plezuro akompanos la fraton. Tuj ŝi pretigis sin por iri, kaj ili ekveturis. Ili pasis preter pitoreskaj kampoj kaj arbaretoj, kaj fine alvenis al ponto trans la rivero. Ili kredis ĝin malnova kaj ne tre forta, kaj ial la junulino estis treege timigita (frightened). "Ho, kara frato," ŝi ekkriis, kun eksalteto pro timo, "tiu ponto ja estas danĝera! Mi deziras marŝi trans ĝin, ĉar iam la pezeco de unu persono estos tiom tro multe por veturilo sur malforta ponto!" Sed la timemaj petoj de lia fratino ŝajne kolerigis la junulon, kaj li respondis malafable, "Nu, vi ja mirigas min! Vi montras vin tre malsaĝa, ĉar la konstruintoj de tiu ponto certe faris ĝin sufiĉe forta por tia veturilo kia la nia. Ne estos necese eksalti de ĝi, kaj piede transiri la ponton." Tiamaniere li penis trankviligi la kompatindan knabinon, sed tiaj vortoj nur silentigis ŝin, kaj ŝi komencis mallaŭte ploreti. Tamen la frato montris sin indiferenta al ŝiaj timemaj sentoj, kaj tute malatentis ŝiajn larmojn. Li gvidis la ĉevalojn rekte trans la ponton, dum la fratino atendis la bruegon de rompigita ligno, kaj imagis ke ŝi estas tuj mortigota. Tamen, la ponto estis tiel forta kiel la junulo estis klariginta, kaj tute ne estis danĝera. Sed pro la malafableco de la frato al la fratino, ili tute ne agrable pasigis la ceterajn horojn de la posttagmezo, malgraŭ la beleco de la vetero kaj de la kamparo.

There was a young man living in our town who had a charming younger sister. One day, during the beautiful spring weather, he invited his sister to take a ride somewhere in a carriage pulled by two horses. The invitation delighted the girl, and she happily agreed to join her brother. She quickly got ready to go, and they set off. They passed by picturesque fields and little forests, and finally arrived at a bridge over the river. They thought it looked old and not very strong, and for some reason, the girl was extremely scared. "Oh, dear brother," she exclaimed, jumping a little with fear, "that bridge is definitely dangerous! I want to walk across it because the weight of just one person could be too much for a carriage on a weak bridge!" But his sister's fearful pleas seemed to annoy the young man, and he responded rudely, "Well, you’re really surprising me! You’re acting very foolish because the builders of that bridge surely made it strong enough for a carriage like ours. There’s no need to get off and walk across the bridge." In that way, he tried to calm the poor girl, but such words only silenced her, and she began to cry softly. However, the brother showed indifference to her fearful feelings and completely ignored her tears. He led the horses straight across the bridge while his sister waited for the sound of breaking wood, imagining she was about to be killed. However, the bridge was as strong as the young man had explained, and it was not dangerous at all. But due to the brother's rudeness towards his sister, they spent the rest of the afternoon quite unpleasantly, despite the beauty of the weather and the countryside.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Somewhere in that same town, there lived another youth, who also had an amiable sister. 2. One convenient day, she accompanied him for a ride in a vehicle drawn by a fast horse. 3. When they reached (alvenis al) the bridge, this girl also was frightened for some reason, the same as the girl in the other story. 4. She said "I do not intend to complain, but the carriage will certainly be too heavy while we are in it. I am afraid that that bridge is dangerous, so I will jump out and walk. I will also pick (kolektos) some sort of flowers, among the flowers growing there, near where someone's horses are grazing. I will not delay (atendigi) you long." He replied, "That bridge is entirely safe (nedanĝera) but instead of explaining (making-clear) to you about it, I will lead the horse across the bridge, while you walk across, for I am not indifferent to your fear." Then he helped his sister get out (eliri) of the carriage, and guided the horse across. Then he said with a pleasant smile, "It was not necessary to cross on foot." She replied, "No, but you showed yourself a courteous brother, and were very patient." Then they rode on (antaŭen), and talked to each other very amiably.

1. Somewhere in that same town, there lived another young man who also had a kind sister. 2. One day, she joined him for a ride in a carriage pulled by a fast horse. 3. When they reached the bridge, the girl felt scared for some reason, just like the girl in the other story. 4. She said, "I don’t want to complain, but the carriage feels too heavy while we’re in it. I'm worried that bridge might be dangerous, so I'm going to jump out and walk. I’ll also pick some flowers from the ones growing nearby, where some horses are grazing. I won’t take long." He replied, "That bridge is completely safe, but instead of trying to convince you, I’ll lead the horse across while you walk over, because I care about your fear." Then he helped his sister get out of the carriage and guided the horse across. Afterward, he said with a friendly smile, "You didn’t need to cross on foot." She replied, "No, but you were a considerate brother and very patient." Then they continued on their way and chatted pleasantly with each other.

LESSON XLVI.
THE INDEFINITE ADVERB IEL.

216. The indefinite adverb of manner, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is iel, somehow, in any way, in some (any) manner:

216. The indefinite adverb of manner, connected to the indefinite pronoun iu, is iel, somehow, in any way, in some (any) manner:

Mi penis vin iel gvidi tien, I tried somehow to guide you thither.
Iel ni anoncos la decidon, we shall announce the decision in some way.

I tried to guide you there, I tried somehow to guide you thither.
We will announce the decision somehow, we shall announce the decision in some way.

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB IOM.

217. The indefinite adverb of quantity, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is iom, some, any quantity, a certain amount:

217. The indefinite adverb of quantity, related to the indefinite pronoun iu, is iom, some, any quantity, a certain amount:

Ĉu vi havas iom da tempo? Have you some time?
Ŝi varmigos iom da akvo, she will heat some water.
Tiu metodo estas iomete danĝera, that way is a little dangerous (198).
La ŝnuro estas iom tro longa, the string is somewhat too long.

Do you have some time?
She will heat some water.
That method is a bit dangerous (198).
The string is a little too long.

THE SUFFIX -AD-.

218. The suffix -ad- is used to form words indicating that the action expressed in the root is continuous, habitual or repeated.

218. The suffix -ad- is used to create words that indicate that the action expressed in the root is ongoing, regular, or repetitive.

a. Verbs formed with the suffix -ad- are called frequentative verbs, and may often be translated by the root meaning, preceded by "keep (on)", "used to", etc.:

a. Verbs that are made with the suffix -ad- are called frequentative verbs, and they can often be translated using the root meaning, along with "keep (on)", "used to", etc.:

frapadi, to keep knocking, to knock repeatedly.
rigardadi, to keep on looking, to gaze.
vizitadi, to keep visiting, visit repeatedly, frequent, haunt.
Antaŭ du jaroj ŝi tre dolĉe kantadis, two years ago she used to sing very sweetly.

frapadi, to keep knocking, to knock over and over.
rigardadi, to keep looking, to gaze.
vizitadi, to keep visiting, to visit repeatedly, frequent, haunt.
Antaŭ du jaroj ŝi tre dolĉe kantadis, two years ago she used to sing really sweetly.

b. Nouns formed with the suffix -ad- are often equivalent to English verbal nouns ending in -ing, and (with the generic article, 201) may replace the infinitive as subject (130) and sometimes as object (29):

b. Nouns that use the suffix -ad- are often similar to English verbal nouns ending in -ing, and (with the general article, 201) can replace the infinitive as the subject (130) and sometimes as the object (29):

kriado, crying, shouting (from krio, cry, shout).
movado, motion, movement in general (from movo, a movement).
pafado, shooting, fusillade (from pafo, a shot).
parolado, a speech, address (from parolo, a word spoken).
pensado, thought, contemplation (from penso, a thought).
La promenado donas plezuron, the taking of walks gives pleasure.
Mi preferas la legadon de tiaj libroj, I prefer the reading of (to read) such books.

kriado, crying, shouting (from krio, cry, shout).
movado, motion, movement in general (from movo, a movement).
pafado, shooting, gunfire (from pafo, a shot).
parolado, a speech, address (from parolo, a word spoken).
pensado, thought, contemplation (from penso, a thought).
La promenado donas plezuron, taking walks is enjoyable.
Mi preferas la legadon de tiaj libroj, I prefer reading such books.

THE USE OF MEM.

219. The invariable pronoun mem, self, selves, is intensive, and lays stress upon the substantive which immediately precedes it, or which it obviously modifies. (The combination of mem with personal pronouns must not be confused with reflexive pronouns, 39, 40):

219. The fixed pronoun mem, self, selves, is used for emphasis and highlights the noun that comes right before it or that it clearly modifies. (The combination of mem with personal pronouns should not be confused with reflexive pronouns, 39, 40):

Mi mem akompanos vin, I myself shall accompany you.
La gvidisto mem perdis la vojon, the guide himself lost the way.
Mi kredos al la viro mem, I shall give credence to the man himself.
La viroj mem defendis sin, the men themselves defended themselves.
Ĝi pendas sur la muro mem, it hangs on the very wall (the wall itself).
Ŝi venis mem por vidi vin, she came herself to see you.
Mi ekvidis la ŝteliston mem, I caught a glimpse of the thief himself.

I will accompany you myself, I myself shall accompany you.
The guide lost the way himself, the guide himself lost the way.
I will trust the man himself, I shall give credence to the man himself.
The men defended themselves, the men themselves defended themselves.
It hangs on the wall itself, it hangs on the very wall (the wall itself).
She came to see you herself, she came herself to see you.
I spotted the thief himself, I caught a glimpse of the thief himself.

Vocabulary.
Arĥimed-o, Archimedes.
ban-i, to bathe (trans.).
fals-i, to debase, to forge.
Hieron-o, Hiero.
honest-a, honest.
ide-o, idea.
iel, somehow (216).
iom, some (217).
ĵet-i, to throw, to cast.
kompren-i, to understand.
kron-o, crown.
lev-i, to lift, to raise.
lok-o, place.
mem, self, selves (219).
or-o, gold.
Sikeli-o, Sicily.
ARĤIMEDO KAJ LA KRONOJ.

Iam bonekonata reĝo, nomita Hierono, vivadis en granda urbo en Sikelio, kiu estas sudokcidenta de Italujo. Li suspektis ke iam la kronfaristoj, kiuj fabrikadis kronojn por li, ne uzis ĉiom de la oro donita al ili de la reĝo, sed falsadis ĝin per la uzado de iu alia materialo. Tamen, Hierono ne povis per si mem eltrovi ĉu oni falsadas la oron. Tial li venigis grekan klerulon, kies nomo estis Arĥimedo, kaj rakontis al li sian timon pri la falsita oro. Arĥimedo certigis lin ke iel li ja eltrovos pri la falsado, kaj helpos la reĝon kontraŭ la falsintoj, kiuj estis tiel indiferentaj al la honesteco. Ĉiutage li multe pensadis pri la afero, sed ju pli longe li pensadis, des malpli sukcesaj estis liaj penoj, ĝis iu tago, kiam li okaze faris interesan eltrovon. Li estis ĵus baninta sin, kaj subite ekrimarkis ke dum li mem restis en la akvo, ial ŝajnis esti iomete pli multe da akvo en la banujo ol antaŭe. Tuj li komprenis ke lia korpo estas forpuŝinta iom de la akvo el ĝia loko. Li komprenis ke tiom da akvo estas elpuŝita, kiom antaŭe estis en tiu loko kie li mem estas. Tia levado de la akvo per lia korpo donis al li saĝan ideon, kaj li prenis en la mano du aŭ tri orajn kronojn. Li ĵetis ilin unu post la alia en la banujon, kaj zorge rimarkis al kiu alteco ĉiu el ili levis la akvon. Tiam li eltiris ilin, kaj enmetis la kronon pri kiu Hierono estis plej suspektema. Li rimarkis ke ĉi tiu ne tiel alten levis la akvon, tial li estis certa ke la oro en ĝi estas multe falsita. Oni diras ke kiam li eltrovis ĉi tiun metodon por montri la falsadon de la malhonestaj kronfaristoj, li eksaltetis pro ĝojo kaj ekkriis "eŭreka," kiu estas la greka vorto por "mi estas trovinta." Tiun saman vorton oni ankoraŭ nun uzadas en la angla lingvo.

There was a king named Hiero who lived in a large city in Sicily, which is southwest of Italy. He suspected that the crown makers, who crafted crowns for him, weren’t using all the gold he gave them but were instead replacing it with some other material. However, Hiero couldn’t figure out on his own whether the gold was being tampered with. So he called in a Greek scholar named Archimedes and shared his fear about the fake gold. Archimedes assured him that he would find a way to determine the fraud and help the king against those dishonest artisans. He thought about the issue a lot every day, but the longer he pondered, the less successful his efforts became, until one day, he accidentally made an interesting discovery. He had just taken a bath and suddenly noticed that while he was in the water, it seemed like there was a little more water in the tub than before. He immediately realized that his body was displacing some of the water. He understood that the amount of water displaced was equal to the volume of the part of him that was submerged. This increase in water level gave him a brilliant idea, and he took two or three gold crowns in his hands. He threw them in the bath one after the other and carefully noted how high each one raised the water level. Then he took them out and put in the crown that Hiero was most suspicious of. He noticed that this one didn’t raise the water as high, so he was sure that its gold was heavily adulterated. It’s said that when he discovered this method to reveal the deceit of the dishonest crown makers, he jumped up in joy and shouted "Eureka," which is the Greek word for "I have found it." This same word is still used in the English language today.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Several centuries ago, a rich and powerful (multepova) king, named Hiero, lived in Sicily. 2. Sometimes he was suspicious about the crown-makers who wrought (faris) crowns for him, out of the gold which he himself gave them. 3. He wondered whether these men were honest. 4. He suspected that perhaps (eble) they did not use all of the gold which was given them, but kept some of it for themselves. 5. He could not of himself (per si mem) discover whether they were debasing the gold in his crowns, so he summoned a wise man from (el) Greece. 6. To this well-informed man, whose name was Archimedes, he made clear his fears. 7. Archimedes assured the king that he would find out somehow about the matter. 8. He meditated several hours every day, and tried to discover a satisfactory (kontentiga) method, but for some reason he did not succeed. 9. One day, however, when he was bathing (himself), he noticed that there seemed to be a little more water in the bathtub when he himself was in it, than before. 10. The rising of the water gave him an idea. 11. He threw the crowns one after another into the water, and noticed how much water each displaced. 12. In this manner (tiamaniere) he understood how much each had been alloyed by the local (lokaj) crown-makers, whom Hiero soon threw into prison (la malliberejon).

1. Several centuries ago, a rich and powerful king named Hiero lived in Sicily. 2. Sometimes he was suspicious of the crown-makers who made crowns for him from the gold he provided. 3. He wondered if these men were honest. 4. He suspected that maybe they didn’t use all the gold he gave them and kept some for themselves. 5. He couldn't figure out if they were tampering with the gold in his crowns, so he called for a wise man from Greece. 6. He explained his concerns to this knowledgeable man, named Archimedes. 7. Archimedes promised the king he would find a way to investigate the issue. 8. He spent several hours each day thinking about it, trying to come up with a reliable method, but for some reason, he didn’t succeed. 9. One day, while he was bathing, he noticed that there seemed to be a bit more water in the bathtub when he was in it compared to when it was empty. 10. The increase in water level sparked an idea for him. 11. He tossed the crowns into the water one by one and observed how much water each one displaced. 12. This way, he figured out how much each crown had been mixed with other metals by the local crown-makers, whom Hiero soon imprisoned.

LESSON XLVII.
THE NEGATIVE PRONOUN.

220. The negative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is neniu, no one, nobody, no (formed of ne and iu, with a medial n inserted for the sake of euphony):

220. The negative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is neniu, no one, nobody, no (formed from ne and iu, with a medial n added for better sound):

Neniu el vi komprenas min, no one of you understands me.
Mi trovis neniun preta por iri, I found nobody ready to go.
Li havis neniun honestan serviston, he had no honest servant.

None of you understands me, no one of you understands me.
I found no one ready to go, I found nobody ready to go.
He had no honest servant, he had no honest servant.

221. The negative pronoun neniu has a possessive or genitive form, nenies, nobody's, no one's:

221. The negative pronoun neniu has a possessive or genitive form, nenies, nobody's, no one's:

Ĉies afero estas nenies afero, everybody's affair is nobody's affair.
Li laŭdos nenies ideojn, he will praise no one's ideas.

Everyone's issue is no one's issue, everybody's affair is nobody's affair.
He won't praise anyone's ideas, he will praise no one's ideas.

THE ADVERBIAL PARTICIPLE.

222. A participle may be equivalent not only to a clause describing or determining the substantive modified, as in la parolanta viro, the man who-is-talking, la sendota knabo, the boy who-will-be-sent, but also to an adverbial clause.

222. A participle can serve as more than just a clause that describes or defines the noun it modifies, like in la parolanta viro, the man who is talking, la sendota knabo, the boy who will be sent, but can also act as an adverbial clause.

An adverbial clause modifies a verb, as in dum vi atendis, li foriris, while you waited, he went away; ĉar mi ĝojis, mi ridis, because I was happy, I laughed.

An adverbial clause modifies a verb, as in while you waited, he went away; because I was happy, I laughed.

Such a participle has for its subject the subject of the verb in the sentence (though not in attributive or predicate relation with it), and indicates some relation of time, cause, manner, situation, etc., between the action of the participle and that of the main verb in the sentence. An adverbial participle is given the ending -e:

Such a participle has as its subject the subject of the verb in the sentence (although it's not in an attributive or predicate relationship with it) and shows some relation of time, cause, manner, situation, etc., between the action of the participle and that of the main verb in the sentence. An adverbial participle has the ending -e:

Ĝojante, mi ridis, rejoicing, I laughed.
Forironte, ni adiaŭis lin, being about to depart, we bade him farewell.
Baninte la infaneton, ŝi dormigis ĝin, after bathing (having bathed) the baby, she put it to sleep.
Estante ruzaj, ili falsis la oron, being sly, they debased the gold.
Tiel helpate de vi, mi sukcesos, thus helped by you, I shall succeed.
Silentigite de li, ili ne plendis, (having been) silenced by him, they did not complain.
Punote, li ekkriis, being about to be punished, he gave a cry.
Ne parolinte, li foriris, without speaking (not having spoken), he left.
Li venis, ne vokite, he came without being (came not-having-been) called.

Rejoicing, I laughed.
Being about to depart, we said goodbye to him.
After bathing the baby, she put it to sleep.
Being sly, they debased the gold.
Thus helped by you, I will succeed.
(Having been) silenced by him, they did not complain.
Being about to be punished, he cried out.
Without speaking, he left.
He came without being called.

The adverbial participle must not be used in rendering the English "nominative absolute" construction of a participial clause referring to something else than the subject. In such a sentence a clause must be used: The youth being young, everyone watched him, ĉar la junulo estis juna, ĉiu rigardadis lin; the work being finished, he went away, kiam la lahoro estis finita, li foriris.

The adverbial participle shouldn't be used to translate the English "nominative absolute" construction of a participial clause that refers to something other than the subject. In this kind of sentence, a clause must be used: The youth being young, everyone watched him, ĉar la junulo estis juna, ĉiu rigardadis lin; the work being finished, he went away, kiam la lahoro estis finita, li foriris.

THE PREFIX RE-.

223. The prefix re- indicates the repetition of an action or state, or the return of a person or thing to its original place or state. (Cf. English prefix re-; meaning either "again" or "back.")

223. The prefix re- means to repeat an action or state, or to return a person or thing to its original place or state. (Cf. English prefix re-; meaning either "again" or "back.")

rekapti, to recapture.
renovigi, to renew.
rekoni, to recognize.
ĝis la revido, au revoir.
ree, again, anew.
rebrili, to shine back, to reflect.
reteni, to hold back, to retain.
reveni, to come back, to return.
reiri, to go back, to return.
reĵeti, to throw back, to reject.
Vocabulary.
brul-i, to be in flames, to burn.
cilindr-o, cylinder.
detru-i, to destroy.
fam-a, famous.
filozof-o, philosopher.
fizik-o, physics.
insul-o, island.
maŝin-o, machine.
nenies, nobody's (221).
neniu, no one (220).
problem-o, problem.
Sirakuz-o, Syracuse.
spegul-o, mirror.
ŝraŭb-o, screw.
LA FILOZOFO ARĤIMEDO.

Eble neniu greka klerulo estis pli fama ol la filozofo Arĥimedo. Longe studadinte la problemojn de la geometrio kaj de la fiziko, li faris multe da eltrovoj. Li tiel multe komprenis pri la uzado de la levilo (lever) ke oni rakontas la sekvantan rakonteton pri li: Li diris al la reĝo Hierono "Kiam oni donos al mi lokon sur kiu mi povos stari, mi mem ekmovos la mondon per mia levilo!" Zorge ekzameninte la ecojn (202) de la ŝraŭbo kaj de la cilindro, li elpensis diversajn maŝinojn en kiuj ŝraŭboj kaj cilindroj estas iamaniere kunigitaj. Uzante unu el tiuj maŝinoj, oni povis facile puŝi al la akvo la ŝipojn (necese konstruitajn sur la tero); kiujn antaŭe la viroj mem enpuŝis en la akvon, kun multe da laboro, aŭ tiris tien per ĉevaloj. Uzante alian maŝinon elpensitan de tiu greko, oni povis levi akvon de unu loko al alia. Ankoraŭ nun oni nomas tian maŝinon la "ŝraŭbo de Arĥimedo." En la daŭro de granda militado kontraŭ la urbo Sirakuzo, sur la insulo Sikelio, Arĥimedo elpensis diversajn maŝinojn por helpi la Sirakuzanojn. Vidinte ke la sunlumo rebrilas de spegulo, li faris el speguloj maŝinon per kiu li ekbruligis (set on fire) la ŝipojn de la malamikoj. Ĉi tiuj, ne komprenante kiamaniere la ŝipoj ekbrulis, estis multe timigitaj. Sed eĉ helpite de Arĥimedo la Sirakuzanoj ne venkis. Post iom da tempo, la malamikoj kaptis kaj tute detruis la urbon Sirakuzon. Nenies domo restis netuŝita, kaj centoj da personoj estis mortigataj. Oni ne scias per kia morto Arĥimedo mortis, sed eble la malamikoj, iel rekoninte la elpensinton de la spegulmaŝino, ĵetis lin en la maron aŭ alimaniere lin mortigis.

Eble neniu greka intelektulo estis pli fama ol la filozofo Arĥimedo. Post longa studado de geometrio kaj fiziko, li faris multajn eltrovojn. Li tiel bone komprenis la uzon de la levilo, ke oni rakontas la sekvan rakonteton pri li: Li diris al reĝo Hierono, "Kiam oni donos al mi lokon, kie mi povas stari, mi mem ekmovos la mondon per mia levilo!" Zorge ekzameninte la ecojn de la ŝraŭbo kaj cilindro, li elpensis diversajn maŝinojn, en kiuj ŝraŭboj kaj cilindroj estas iamaniere kunigitaj. Uzante unu el tiuj maŝinoj, oni povis facile puŝi la ŝipojn al la akvo (necese konstruitajn sur la tero); tiuj, kiujn antaŭe la viroj mem enpuŝis en la akvon, kun multe da laboro, aŭ tiris per ĉevaloj. Uzante alian maŝinon elpensitan de tiu greko, oni povis levi akvon de unu loko al alia. Ankoraŭ nun oni nomas tian maŝinon la "ŝraŭbo de Arĥimedo." Dum granda milito kontraŭ la urbo Sirakuzo, sur la insulo Sikelio, Arĥimedo elpensis diversajn maŝinojn por helpi la Sirakuzanojn. Vidinte, ke la sunlumo rebrilas de spegulo, li faris el speguloj maŝinon, per kiu li ekbruligis la ŝipojn de la malamikoj. Ĉi tiuj, ne komprenante kiamaniere la ŝipoj ekbrulis, estis multe timigitaj. Sed eĉ kun la helpo de Arĥimedo, la Sirakuzanoj ne venkis. Post iom da tempo, la malamikoj kaptis kaj tute detruis la urbon Sirakuzon. Nenies domo restis netuŝita, kaj centoj da personoj estis mortigitaj. Oni ne scias, per kia morto Arĥimedo mortis, sed eble la malamikoj, iel rekoninte la elpensinton de la spegulmaŝino, ĵetis lin en la maron aŭ alimaniere lin mortigis.

The use of kiamaniere, in what manner, how, is preferable to that of kiel in indirect questions, as the latter might be confused with the use of kiel, meaning "as" (156).

The use of kiamaniere, in what manner, how, is better than using kiel in indirect questions, as the latter could be mistaken for kiel, meaning "as" (156).

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The Greek philosopher Archimedes was not only famous long ago, among his contemporaries (167, b, 132), but even today his name is well known everywhere. 2. No one's knowledge about the problems of geometry and physics was greater. 3. No one understood better the properties of the cylinder and the screw. 4. Having studied these properties a long time, and having meditated a great deal about them, he understood them a little (217) better than any one else (iu alia). 5. The story about the debasing of the gold crowns has already been told. 6. There is another anecdote, namely (nome), that he remarked to Hiero, king of Syracuse, that with a lever he would move the world, as soon as he had a place on which he himself could stand. 7. Having discovered how (kiamaniere) the sunlight is reflected by a mirror, and heats the wood upon which it shines, he invented a machine made out of mirrors. 8. Aided by this machine, the Syracusans were able to set on fire the wooden ships of the enemy. 9. The enemy, however, were not repulsed from the island, but at once rebuilt and repaired their ships, and sent them back to attack the city again. 10. Finally, having captured the city, they destroyed it, and killed a large number of the inhabitants (loĝantoj), also Archimedes himself.

1. The Greek philosopher Archimedes was famous not just in his time (167, b, 132), but his name is still well-known everywhere today. 2. No one had a greater understanding of geometry and physics. 3. No one understood the properties of the cylinder and the screw better than he did. 4. After studying these properties for a long time and thinking deeply about them, he understood them slightly better than anyone else (iu alia). 5. The story about the gold crowns being debased has already been told. 6. There's another story where he told Hiero, the king of Syracuse, that with a lever, he could move the world, as long as he had a place to stand. 7. After discovering how (kiamaniere) sunlight is reflected by a mirror and heats the wood it shines on, he invented a machine made of mirrors. 8. With this machine, the people of Syracuse were able to set fire to the enemy's wooden ships. 9. However, the enemy didn't retreat from the island; they immediately rebuilt and repaired their ships and sent them back to attack the city again. 10. In the end, they captured the city, destroyed it, and killed many of the inhabitants (loĝantoj), including Archimedes himself.

LESSON XLVIII.
THE NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE.

224. The negative adjective, related to the negative pronoun neniu, is nenia, no kind of, no sort of, expressing a negative idea concerning the quality of a person or thing:

224. The negative adjective, related to the negative pronoun neniu, is nenia, no kind of, no sort of, expressing a negative idea about the quality of a person or thing:

Mi havas nenian spegulon, I have no sort of mirror.
Nenia problemo estas tro malfacila por li, no sort of problem is too difficult for him.

I have no mirror at all, I have no sort of mirror.
No problem is too hard for him, no sort of problem is too difficult for him.

THE NEGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.

225. The negative adverb of place is nenie, nowhere. The ending -n may be added, as to other adverbs (121), to indicate direction:

225. The negative adverb of place is nenie, nowhere. You can add the ending -n, like with other adverbs (121), to show direction:

Nenie estas pli bona maŝino, nowhere is there a better machine.
Mi iros nenien morgaŭ, I shall go nowhere tomorrow.

Nenie estas pli bona maŝino, nowhere is there a better machine.
Mi iros nenien morgaŭ, I won't go anywhere tomorrow.

THE NEGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.

226. The negative adverb of time is neniam, never, at no time:

226. The negative adverb of time is neniam, never, at no time:

Neniam vivis pli fama filozofo, there never lived a more famous philosopher.
Vi neniam trovos tiajn ŝraŭbojn aŭ cilindrojn, you will never find that kind of screws or cylinders.

No philosopher has ever been more famous, there never lived a more famous philosopher.
You will never find those kinds of screws or cylinders, you will never find that kind of screws or cylinders.

THE SUFFIX -AĴ-.

227. The suffix -aĵ- is used to form concrete words. It is thus in contrast to the abstract-forming suffix -ec- (202).

227. The suffix -aĵ- is used to create concrete words. This contrasts with the abstract-forming suffix -ec- (202).

a. A word formed from a verbal root by means of the suffix -aĵ- expresses a concrete example of a thing which undergoes (or, in the case of intransitives, results from) the action indicated in the root:

a. A word created from a verbal root by using the suffix -aĵ- represents a specific instance of a thing that experiences (or, in the case of intransitive verbs, arises from) the action described in the root:

konstruaĵo, a building.
sendaĵo, consignment, thing sent.
manĝaĵo, food.
kreskaĵo, a plant, a growth.
rebrilaĵo, a reflection.
restaĵo, remainder.

b. A word formed from an adjectival root or formation by means of the suffix -aĵ- indicates a thing characterized by or possessing the quality expressed in the root or formation to which it is attached:

b. A word formed from an adjectival root or formation using the suffix -aĵ- signifies a thing characterized by or having the quality expressed in the root or formation it is attached to:

belaĵo, a thing of beauty.
maljustaĵo, an injustice.
mirindaĵo, a marvel.
okazintaĵo, an occurrence.

c. A word formed from a noun-root by means of the suffix -aĵ- indicates a thing made or derived from that which is expressed in the root:

c. A word created from a noun-root using the suffix -aĵ- signifies a thing made or derived from what is represented in the root:

sukeraĵo, a sweet, confection.
ovaĵo, an omelet.
oraĵo, a gold object.
araneaĵo, a spider-web.
THE ADVERB JEN.

228. The adverb jen, behold, here, there, is used to point out or call attention to something:

228. The adverb jen, behold, here, there, is used to point out or draw attention to something:

Jen estas la problemo! There is the problem!
Jen la filozofo! Behold the philosopher!
Jen ŝi ludas, jen ŝi studas, now she plays, now she studies.
Mi faris ĝin jene, I did it as follows.
Mi agis laŭ la jena metodo, I acted in the following way.
Li diris la jenajn vortojn, he spoke the following words.

Here's the problem! There is the problem!
Here is the philosopher! Behold the philosopher!
Sometimes she plays, sometimes she studies, now she plays, now she studies.
I did it like this, I did it as follows.
I acted in this manner, I acted in the following way.
He said the following words, he spoke the following words.

Vocabulary.
aranĝ-i, to arrange.
art-o, art.
ber-o, berry.
jen, there, behold (228).
ĵaluz-a, jealous.
konkurs-o, competition.
lert-a, skilled, clever.
nenia, no kind of (224).
neniam, never (226).
nenie, nowhere (225).
pentr-i, to paint.
postul-i, to demand.
precip-a, principal, chief.
regul-o, rule.
tromp-i, to deceive.
vin-o, wine.
DU ARTKONKURSOJ.

Vivadis en Grekujo antaŭ multaj jarcentoj du lertaj famaj pentristoj. Ili estis reciproke ĵaluzaj, kaj neniam povis interparoli paceme. Ne povinte decidi la problemon, kaj eltrovi kiu el ili estas la plej lerta, ili fine aranĝis konkurson pri la pentrado. Laŭ ĝiaj reguloj, ĉiu el ili pentris pentraĵon, por montri sian lertecon. Unu pentris teleron da vinberoj (grapes). Ĝi estis tiel mirinde kolorigita ke eĉ la birdoj venis kaj penis ĝin manĝi, pensinte ĝin ne nur pentraĵo, sed la vinberoj mem. "Nenia pentraĵo povos superi la mian," ĝojege ekkriis la pentristo, "jen, la birdoj mem rekonas mian lertecon!" Tiam li diris al la alia artisto, "Nu, kial vi ne fortiras tiun kurtenon? Mi volas rigardi vian pentraĵon." La dua pentristo respondis kun rideto, "Jen estas mia pentraĵo. Nenie apud vi estas kurteno, sed vi vidas nur pentraĵon de kurteno antaŭ tiu konstruaĵo." Tre mirigite, la pentrinto de la vinberoj diris "Vi ja superas min en la pentrado. Mi trompis la birdojn per mia pentraĵo, sed vi trompas eĉ aliajn artistojn! Tia lerteco estas ja mirindaĵo!"

Vivadis en Grekujo antaŭ multaj jarcentoj du lertaj famaj pentristoj. Ili estis reciproke ĵaluzaj, kaj neniam povis interparoli paceme. Ne povinte decidi la problemon, kaj eltrovi kiu el ili estas la plej lerta, ili fine aranĝis konkurson pri la pentrado. Laŭ ĝiaj reguloj, ĉiu el ili pentris pentraĵon, por montri sian lertecon. Unu pentris teleron da vinberoj (_grapes_). Ĝi estis tiel mirinde kolorigita ke eĉ la birdoj venis kaj penis ĝin manĝi, pensinte ĝin ne nur pentraĵo, sed la vinberoj mem. "Nenia pentraĵo povos superi la mian," ĝojege ekkriis la pentristo, "jen, la birdoj mem rekonas mian lertecon!" Tiam li diris al la alia artisto, "Nu, kial vi ne fortiras tiun kurtenon? Mi volas rigardi vian pentraĵon." La dua pentristo respondis kun rideto, "Jen estas mia pentraĵo. Nenie apud vi estas kurteno, sed vi vidas nur pentraĵon de kurteno antaŭ tiu konstruaĵo." tre mirigite, la pentrinto de la vinberoj diris "Vi ja superas min en la pentrado. Mi trompis la birdojn per mia pentraĵo, sed vi trompas eĉ aliajn artistojn! Tia lerteco estas ja mirindaĵo!"

Oni rakontas similan okazintaĵon pri fama artisto kiu pentris multe da pentraĵoj por Aleksandro Granda. Malgajninte en konkurso kontraŭ iuj aliaj artistoj, li opiniis ke la juĝintoj estas maljustaj al li, precipe pro la ĵaluzeco. Li ekkriis "Ĉar niaj pentraĵoj estas bildoj de ĉevaloj, ili certe postulas ĉevalajn juĝantojn!" Tial oni enkondukis du aŭ tri ĉevalojn. La ĉevaloj, tute ne rigardinte la pentraĵojn de la aliaj artistoj, kuris rekte al tiu de la plendinta artisto, kaj klare montris sian rekonadon de la tie pentritaj ĉevaloj. Surprizite, oni diris "Jen estas justaj juĝantoj!" Tuj oni laŭdis la pentriston kaj severe punis la malhonestajn homajn juĝintojn.

Oni tells a similar story about a famous artist who painted many works for Alexander the Great. After losing a competition against other artists, he felt that the judges were unfair to him, especially due to jealousy. He shouted, "Since our paintings are pictures of horses, they definitely need horse judges!" So, they brought in two or three horses. The horses, not even looking at the paintings from the other artists, ran straight to the one from the complaining artist and clearly showed their recognition of the horses painted there. Surprised, they said, "Here are the fair judges!" Immediately, they praised the painter and severely punished the dishonest human judges.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION

1. Syracuse was the largest city on the island of Sicily. 2. The famous philosopher and physicist Archimedes lost his life when that city was destroyed and entirely burned. 3. At least, no sort of trace of him seems to have been found after that occurrence. 4. Never, perhaps, was there a more learned man in Syracuse. 5. Greece was also famous for its skilled painters, and there are many anecdotes about them. 6. A painter who failed in a certain competition believed that none of the judges had been just to him. 7. He exclaimed "Behold this iniquity (injustice)! Nowhere can I find a human being who is not jealous. 8. Since the paintings are chiefly of horses, do they not require horses for judges?" 9. His proposal was accepted (54), and some horses were led in. 10. Without noticing (222) the other paintings, the horses walked at once to the picture of the unsuccessful artist, and showed immediate recognition of the horses painted there. 11. This act showed which competitor (konkursinto) was the most skilful. 12. The painter, having deceived the horses, as another artist had once deceived birds by a picture of grapes, said "Animals decide not by rules, but by feelings."

1. Syracuse was the biggest city on the island of Sicily. 2. The renowned philosopher and physicist Archimedes lost his life when that city was destroyed and completely burned down. 3. In fact, it seems no trace of him was found after that event. 4. Perhaps there was never a more knowledgeable person in Syracuse. 5. Greece was also famous for its talented painters, and there are many stories about them. 6. One painter who lost in a competition believed that none of the judges were fair to him. 7. He shouted, "Look at this injustice! I can’t find a single person who isn’t jealous." 8. "Since the paintings are mostly of horses, don't they need horses as judges?" 9. His suggestion was accepted (54), and some horses were brought in. 10. Without paying attention to the other paintings, the horses immediately walked over to the piece by the unsuccessful artist, and they recognized the horses depicted there right away. 11. This act revealed which competitor (konkursinto) was the most skilled. 12. The painter, having tricked the horses just as another artist once tricked birds with a picture of grapes, said, "Animals don’t judge by rules, but by feelings."

LESSON XLIX.
THE NEGATIVE ADVERBS NENIAL, NENIEL, NENIOM.

229. The negative adverb of motive or reason, related to the negative pronoun neniu, is nenial, for no reason:

229. The negative adverb for motive or reason, related to the negative pronoun neniu, is nenial, without any reason:

Li estas nenial ĵaluza, he is jealous for no reason.
Nenial li trompis vin, for no reason he deceived you.

He is jealous for no reason, he is jealous for no reason.
He deceived you for no reason, for no reason he deceived you.

230. The negative adverb of manner is neniel, in no way.

230. The negative adverb of manner is neniel, not at all.

Mi povos neniel aranĝi konkurson, I can in no way arrange a competition.
Tiu ago estas neniel laŭregula, That act is in no way regular.

I can't arrange a competition, I can in no way arrange a competition.
That act is definitely not normal, That act is in no way regular.

231. The negative adverb of quantity is neniom, no amount of, not any, none, no:

231. The negative adverb of quantity is neniom, no amount of, not any, none, no:

Tiu pentraĵo postulas neniom da lerteco, such a painting requires no skill.
Estas neniom da vino en lia glaso, there is no wine in his glass.

This painting requires no skill, such a painting requires no skill.
There is no wine in his glass, there is no wine in his glass.

THE SUFFIX -IĜ-.

232. The suffix -iĝ- is used to form intransitive verbs of an inchoative nature.

232. The suffix -iĝ- is used to create intransitive verbs that indicate a change of state.

a. Inchoative verbs from the roots of intransitive verbs indicate the beginning or coming into existence of the act or condition expressed in the root:

a. Inchoative verbs derived from the roots of intransitive verbs indicate the beginning or emergence of the action or condition expressed in the root:

sidiĝi, to become sitting, to sit down, to take a seat.
stariĝi, to become standing, to stand up.

sit, to become seated, to take a seat.
stand, to become upright, to stand up.

b. Intransitive verbs may be similarly formed from the roots of transitive verbs, and indicate an action of the verb not immediately due to the subject's acting upon itself (as in the case of reflexive verbs, 41) and not caused by any direct agency (as in the case of the passive voice, 169):

b. Intransitive verbs can also be created from the roots of transitive verbs, indicating an action of the verb that isn't directly performed by the subject on itself (like in reflexive verbs, 41) and isn't caused by any direct force (as seen in the passive voice, 169):

La pordo fermiĝas, the door closes (goes shut).
La veturilo moviĝas, the vehicle moves.
La branĉo rompiĝas, the branch breaks.
Grupo da personoj kolektiĝis, a group of persons gathered.

The door closes, the door closes.
The vehicle moves, the vehicle moves.
The branch breaks, the branch breaks.
A group of people gathered, a group of people gathered.

Cf. the examples given and the following sentences in which the same verbal roots are used in the simple form and in the passive voice:

See. the examples provided and the following sentences where the same verb roots appear in the simple form and in the passive voice:

Ni fermas la pordon, we close the door. La pordo estas fermita, the door is (has been) closed.
Oni movas la veturilon, they move the vehicle. La veturilo estas movata, the vehicle is being moved.
Mi rompas la branĉon, I break the branch. La branĉo estas rompita, the branch is (has been) broken.
Li kolektis florojn, he gathered flowers. Floroj estas kolektitaj, flowers have been gathered.

We close the door, we close the door. The door is closed, the door is closed.
They move the vehicle, they move the vehicle. The vehicle is being moved, the vehicle is being moved.
I break the branch, I break the branch. The branch is broken, the branch is broken.
He gathered flowers, he gathered flowers. Flowers have been gathered, flowers have been gathered.

c. Intransitive verbs may similarly be formed from adjectival roots, and indicate the acquiring of the characteristic or quality expressed in the root:

c. Intransitive verbs can also be made from adjectival roots, indicating the gaining of the characteristic or quality expressed in the root:

laciĝi, to become tired, to get tired.
varmiĝi, to become warm, to get warm.
maljuniĝi, to become old, to age.

laciĝi, to get tired.
varmiĝi, to get warm.
maljuniĝi, to age.

d. Verbs may similarly be formed from noun-roots, adverbs, prepositions, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits:

d. Verbs can also be created from noun roots, adverbs, prepositions, prefixes, and suffixes that allow for it:

amikiĝi, to become a friend.
foriĝi, to go away, to disappear.
kuniĝi, to become joined.
ebliĝi, to become possible.
Vocabulary.
apenaŭ, hardly, scarcely.
atmosfer-o, atmosphere.
dub-i, to doubt.
efektiv-a, effective, real.
hel-a, clear, bright.
horizont-o, horizon.
krepusk-o, twilight.
nenial, for no reason (229).
neniel, in no way (230).
neniom, none, no (231).
ombr-o, shadow.
pejzaĝ-o, landscape.
radi-o, ray.
tropik-a, tropical.
LA KREPUSKO.

Estas tre agrable sidiĝi sur la herbon, kaj rigardi la plilongiĝantajn ombrojn, en la daŭro de bela somera vespero. La suno grade malleviĝas post la montetoj, la nuboj fariĝas (become) bele kolorigitaj, kaj la tuta pejzaĝo pli kaj pli beliĝas. Malrapide la krepusko anstataŭas la helan sunlumon, kaj fine ĉie noktiĝas. La krepusko estas la rebrilado de la sunlumo tra la atmosfero, post la malleviĝo de la suno mem, laŭ la jena maniero: la radioj suprenbriladas, en la aeron super niaj kapoj, en la okcidenta parto de la ĉielo. De tie ili rebriladas tiamaniere ke la ĉielo lumiĝas. Kiam estas iom da nuboj sur la ĉielo okcidenta, la sunradioj briladas rekte kontraŭ ilin, belege kolorigante tiujn nubojn. En tropikaj landoj la krepuskiĝo okazas tre rapide. Ĝi ne nur komenciĝas subite, sed ankaŭ daŭras tre mallongan tempon. La noktiĝo preskaŭ tuj sekvas la taglumon, kun rimarkinda subiteco. Apenaŭ komenciĝas la krepusko, kiam la subiranta suno ŝajnas fali preter la horizonto. Tute male (quite on the contrary), en landoj treege nordaj, krepuskiĝas tre frue en la tago, kaj la krepusko daŭras longan tempon antaŭ ol la nokto venas. Efektive (really), en tiuj landoj la krepusko tute anstataŭas la nokton, dum ses monatoj de la jaro. Tie oni havas krepuskon dum la unua duonjaro, kaj la taglumon dum la sekvinta duonjaro. Krepusko daŭranta tiom da tempo estas tiel rimarkinda kiel tago de tia sama longeco. Mi dubas ĉu tia dividado de la tempo inter tago kaj malhela nokto estas agrabla, sed oni povas neniel malhelpi ĝin. Ĉiu tre norda lando havas la saman travivaĵon (experience), ĉiujare, kaj efektive oni apenaŭ rimarkas ĝin. Pri ĉiu plendanto oni nur diras "Li estas nenial malkontenta."

It’s very pleasant to sit on the grass and watch the lengthening shadows during a beautiful summer evening. The sun gradually sets behind the hills, the clouds become beautifully colored, and the whole landscape grows more and more beautiful. Slowly, twilight replaces the bright sunlight, and finally, night falls everywhere. Twilight is the reflection of sunlight through the atmosphere after the sun itself has set, in the following way: the rays brighten up in the air above our heads, in the western part of the sky. From there, they reflect in such a way that the sky lights up. When there are some clouds in the western sky, the sun's rays shine directly against them, beautifully coloring those clouds. In tropical countries, twilight happens very quickly. It not only starts suddenly but also lasts a very short time. Nightfall almost immediately follows daylight, with remarkable suddenness. Just as twilight begins, the rising sun seems to fall below the horizon. Quite the contrary, in extremely northern countries, twilight occurs very early in the day, and it lasts a long time before night comes. In fact, in those countries, twilight completely replaces night for six months of the year. There, they have twilight for the first half of the year and daylight for the second half. Twilight lasting that long is just as remarkable as a day of the same length. I wonder whether such a division of time between day and dark night is pleasant, but it can't be avoided. Every northern country has the same experience every year, and in fact, people hardly notice it. For every complainer, people just say, "He's not really unhappy."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Nowhere have I read a more amusing story than that of (
pri
) the two painters who, being mutually (180) jealous, arranged a competition. 2. One painted a cluster (126) of grapes, so excellently that the birds flew to it. 3. The other deceived his rival (competitor) himself, by a painting of a curtain. 4. The most famous artists, however, often show their skill by painting (222) pictures of the sunset, chiefly, I think, because of the brilliant colors. 5. In fact (
efektive
), I doubt whether there is a more beautiful sight (227, b) than the sunset. 6. It is made by the bright rays of the sun, which shine back through the atmosphere, long after the sun itself has passed below the horizon. 7. The more moisture (
malsekaĵo
) there is in the air, the more brilliant the colors are, and the more beautiful the entire landscape becomes. 8. In tropical lands, night falls very suddenly, and there is almost no sort of twilight. 9. In fact, a twilight scarcely occurs there. 10. In the lands far north, on the contrary, the twilight lasts six months, and the remainder of the year is the day. 11. To dwell in such a land is surely a remarkable experience. 12. It can in no way be understood by persons who have never lived there. 13. Such things increase (make greater) my desire to visit those northern lands. 14. For no reason, however, do I wish to reside in the tropical countries.
LESSON L.
THE PRONOUNS ENDING IN -O.

233. In contrast to the pronouns ending in -u (tiu, kiu, ĉiu, iu, neniu), a similar series ending in -o refers to an object, fact or action not definitely specified (but never to a person), like English what, anything, something, nothing, etc. Because of their somewhat vague meaning, these pronouns do not occur in the plural, nor are they ever used as pronominal adjectives:

233. Unlike the pronouns that end in -u (tiu, kiu, ĉiu, iu, neniu), a similar set that ends in -o refers to an object, fact, or action that isn't specifically defined (but never to a person), similar to English words like what, anything, something, nothing, etc. Due to their somewhat unclear meaning, these pronouns don’t appear in the plural, nor are they ever used as pronominal adjectives:

Demonstrative: tio, that (thing, fact or action).
ĉi tio, this (thing, fact or action).
Interrogative and Relative: kio, what.
Distributive: ĉio, everything.
ĉio ĉi, all this.
Indefinite: io, anything, something.
Negative: nenio, nothing.

234. A pronoun (not personal) in predicate or relative relation to a pronoun ending in -o must itself be of the same series:

234. A pronoun (not personal) in predicate or relative relation to a pronoun ending in -o must be from the same category:

Kio estas ĉi tio, kion vi diras? What is this, which you say?
Ŝi vidis tion, kio ĵus okazis, she saw that which just occurred.
Ĉio ĉi, kion vi vidas, estas farita de ili, everything here (all this), which you see, was done by them.
Li havas ion por vi, sed nenion por mi, he has something for you, but nothing for me.

What is this that you’re saying? What is this, which you say?
She saw what just happened, she saw that which just occurred.
Everything you see here was made by them, everything here (all this), which you see, was done by them.
He has something for you, but nothing for me, he has something for you, but nothing for me.

CORRELATIVE WORDS.

235. Pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, which are related to each other as corresponding demonstratives, interrogatives, relatives, etc., are called correlatives. In Esperanto the correlative system is more complete than in any other language, and may be summarized as follows:

235. Pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs that are connected as corresponding demonstratives, interrogatives, relatives, etc., are known as correlatives. In Esperanto, the correlative system is more comprehensive than in any other language and can be summarized as follows:

DemonstrativeInterrogative
and
Relative
Distributive Indefinite Negative
tio (233)
   that (thing)
kio (233)
   what, which
ĉio (233)
   everything
io (233)
   anything
nenio (233)
   nothing
tiu (56)
   that (one)
kiu (146)
   who, which
ĉiu (173)
   every, each
iu (203)
   any (one)
neniu (220)
   no (one)
ties (62)
   that one's
kies (147)
   whose
ĉies (174)
   every one's
ies (204)
   any one's
nenies (221)
   no one's
tia (65)
   that kind of
kia (150)
   what kind of
ĉia (177)
   every kind
ia (208)
   any kind
nenia (224)
   no kind of
tie (68)
   there
kie (151)
   where
ĉie (182)
   everywhere
ie (209)
   anywhere
nenie (225)
   nowhere
tiam (73)
   then
kiam (155)
   when
ĉiam (187)
   always
iam (212)
   any time
neniam (226)
   never
tial (78)
   therefore,
   so
kial (129)
   wherefore,
   why
ĉial (188)
   for every
   reason
ial (213)
   for any
   reason
nenial (229)
   for no
   reason
tiel (88), (156),
   thus, so
kiel (156)
   how, as
ĉiel (193)
   every way
iel (216)
   any way
neniel (230)
   in no way
tiom (104)
   that much,
   so much
kiom (164)
   how much,
   as
ĉiom (194)
   all, the
   whole of
iom (217)
   some, any
   amount
neniom (231)
   none, no
   quantity
THE USE OF AJN.

236. The word ajn may be placed after any interrogative-relative or indefinite correlative word, to give a generalizing sense. In order to avoid confusion with the accusative plural ending, ajn is never attached to the correlative which it follows:

236. The word ajn can be placed after any interrogative-relative or indefinite correlative word to create a generalizing effect. To prevent confusion with the accusative plural ending, ajn is never attached to the correlative that it follows:

kio ajn, whatever.
kies ajn, whosesoever.
kie ajn, wherever.
kiam ajn, whenever.
kiom ajn, however much.
ia ajn, any kind whatever.
THE SUFFIX -ING-.

237. The suffix -ing- is used to form words indicating that which holds one specimen of what is expressed in the root:

237. The suffix -ing- is used to create words that denote a single instance of what is described in the root:

glavingo, scabbard.
lumingo, torch-holder.
plumingo, pen-holder.
ingo, sheath, case, socket.
Vocabulary.
ĉio, everything (233).
Gordio, Gordius.
io, anything (233).
jug-o, yoke.
klin-i, to bend, incline (trans).
kio, what (233).
lig-i, to tie, to bind.
nenio, nothing (233).
ofer-o, offering.
reg-i, to rule, to govern.
sankt-a, sacred, holy.
templ-o, temple.
tio, that (thing) (233).
util-a, useful.
LA GORDIA LIGAĴO.

Unufoje en antikva tempo la regatoj de iu reĝolando en Azio ne havis reĝon. Ne sciante kion fari, ili demandis de la dioj. La dioj respondis, "Kiu ajn venos unue en nian sanktan templon hodiaŭ, por fari oferojn, estos via reĝo." Okaze kamparano nomita Gordio venis al la templo, ĵus post la tagiĝo. La regatoj tuj rekonis la estontan reĝon, kvankam li veturis sur peza malbela veturilo. Salutinte la surprizitan kamparanon, oni nomis lin reĝo. Decidinte fari dankoferon al la dioj, Gordio metis en la templon la veturilon mem sur kiu li tien veturis, antaŭ ol li komencis regi kiel la nova reĝo. La jugo estis alligita (tied fast) per granda ligaĵo el ŝnurego. Post la morto de Gordio oni grade komencis kredi ion tre interesan pri tio. Oni diris ke tiu, kiu povos iel ajn malligi tiun ligaĵon, fariĝos reganto super ĉiuj reĝoj de Azio.

Once upon a time in an ancient kingdom in Asia, the rulers did not have a king. Unsure of what to do, they asked the gods for guidance. The gods responded, "Whoever is the first to come to our sacred temple today to make an offering will be your king." By chance, a farmer named Gordius arrived at the temple just after dawn. The rulers immediately recognized him as the future king, even though he was traveling in a heavy, unattractive cart. After greeting the surprised farmer, they declared him king. Wanting to give thanks to the gods, Gordius placed the very cart he arrived in inside the temple before he began to rule as the new king. The yoke was secured with a large knot made of cord. After Gordius's death, people gradually started to believe something very intriguing about this. They said that whoever could somehow untie that knot would become the ruler over all the kings of Asia.

Post kelkaj jaroj Aleksandro Granda decidis fari grandan militadon kontraŭ Azio, kaj alproksimiĝis al la lando kie estis reginta Gordio. Kiam li demandis, "Kio estas ĉi tie la plej interesa vidindaĵo?" oni rakontis al li tion, kion oni diras pri la ŝnurega ligaĵo sur la veturilo de Gordio. Kompreneble (of course) Aleksandro deziris fari ion ajn utilan por venki Azion, tial li tuj venigis gvidiston por konduki lin al la templo. Alveninte tien, li zorge rigardadis la ligaĵon, kaj ekzamenis la ŝnuregon el kiu ĝi estis farita. Tiam, elpreninte sian glavon el la glavingo, subite kliniĝante li rekte tratranĉis la tutan ligaĵon. "Nenio estas pli facila ol tio," li diris, "kaj nun mi ne dubas ĉu mi certe regos super ĉiuj reĝoj de Azio." Pro tio, kion faris Aleksandro Granda, oni ankoraŭ nuntempe diras, kiam iu ajn superas malfacilaĵon per kia ajn subita metodo, "Li tranĉis la gordian ligaĵon."

After a few years, Alexander the Great decided to launch a major campaign against Asia and approached the land where Gordius had reigned. When he asked, "What’s the most interesting sight here?" he was told about the intricate knot tied on Gordius's chariot. Naturally, Alexander wanted to do something useful to conquer Asia, so he quickly called for a guide to take him to the temple. Upon arriving, he carefully observed the knot and examined the rope it was made from. Then, drawing his sword from its sheath, he suddenly bent down and sliced right through the entire knot. "Nothing could be easier than that," he said, "and now I have no doubt that I will surely rule over all the kings of Asia." Because of what Alexander the Great did, even today, when someone overcomes a challenge with some abrupt method, people say, "He cut the Gordian knot."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. One often hears the remark "I will cut the Gordian knot." 2. There is an interesting story about this. 3. A wagon whose yoke was tied to the pole by a large knot had been put in the middle of the temple. 4. It was a thank-offering to the sacred gods, by whose help Gordius had in olden time become king. 5. It was said that whoever would be able to untie that rope would no doubt become ruler over the whole of Asia. 6. Alexander the Great, having begun a campaign against Asia, approached the city where this temple was. 7. Having heard the story, he at once had a guide come, and went thither, guided by him. 8. He desired to do everything which was useful to the conquering of Asia. 9. Having examined the knot carefully, he bent over and tried for a few minutes to untie it. 10. Then he chose another method. 11. He seized his sword, and suddenly cut through the whole knot. 12. Having done this, he put the sword back into the scabbard. 13. This he did, instead of continuing (daŭrigi) his efforts to untie the knot. 14. In fact, having no patience, he had become tired. 15. Perhaps the conquering of Asia did not in any way become possible on account of this, but at least the story is interesting, whatever actually (efektive) happened. 16. Nothing is impossible, whenever one tries enough. 17. In a tropical country, such as part of Asia is, the landscapes are beautiful. 18. A tropical twilight is very short, however, and the shadows have scarcely become long when the sun seems to sink suddenly below the horizon, although the last bright rays continue to shine back through the atmosphere for a few minutes.

1. You often hear the phrase "I will cut the Gordian knot." 2. There's an interesting story behind this. 3. A wagon, with its yoke tied to the pole by a large knot, was placed in the middle of the temple. 4. It was a thank-offering to the sacred gods, who helped Gordius become king long ago. 5. It was said that whoever could untie that rope would undoubtedly become the ruler of all Asia. 6. Alexander the Great, starting a campaign against Asia, approached the city where this temple was located. 7. Upon hearing the story, he immediately called for a guide and went there with him. 8. He wanted to do everything that would help in conquering Asia. 9. After examining the knot closely, he leaned over and tried for a few minutes to untie it. 10. Then he decided to try something else. 11. He took out his sword and suddenly cut through the entire knot. 12. After doing this, he put the sword back in its sheath. 13. He did this instead of continuing his effort to untie the knot. 14. In fact, lacking patience, he had grown tired. 15. Maybe the conquest of Asia didn't become any more feasible because of this, but at least the story is interesting, no matter what actually happened. 16. Nothing is impossible when you put in enough effort. 17. In a tropical region, like parts of Asia, the landscapes are stunning. 18. However, tropical twilight is very short, and the shadows barely stretch out when the sun appears to drop suddenly below the horizon, even though the last bright rays continue to shine through the atmosphere for a few minutes.

LESSON LI.
THE PRONOUN AMBAŬ.

238. The pronoun (and pronominal adjective) ambaŭ, both, indicates two persons or things considered together. It is invariable in form:

238. The pronoun (and pronominal adjective) ambaŭ, both, refers to two people or things considered together. It does not change form:

Ili ambaŭ venis al la templo, they both came to the temple.
Ambaŭ faris oferojn al la dioj, both made offerings to the gods.
Vidante kaj la plumon kaj la plumingon, mi prenis la ambaŭ, seeing both the pen and the penholder, I took both.

They both came to the temple.
Both made offerings to the gods.
Seeing both the pen and the penholder, I took both.

This pronoun must not be confused with the use of kaj, translated both in the combination kaj ... kaj ..., both ... and ... (26).

This pronoun shouldn't be confused with the use of kaj, which is translated both in the combination kaj ... kaj ..., both ... and ... (26).

FORMATIONS WITH -IG- AND -IĜ-.

239. Some verbs may be used in the simple form, and also with both the suffix -ig- and the suffix -iĝ-. Thus from one verb-root three verbs of distinct meaning may be made, and the formation with -ig-, being transitive, may also be used in the passive:

239. Some verbs can be used in the simple form, as well as with both the suffix -ig- and the suffix -iĝ-. This means that from one verb root, you can create three verbs with different meanings. The formation with -ig-, which is transitive, can also be used in the passive:

sidi,to sit, to be sitting.
 sidiĝi, to become sitting, to take a seat.
 sidigi, to cause to sit, to seat.
 esti sidigata, to be caused to sit.
silenti, to be silent.
 silentiĝi, to become silent.
 silentigi, to cause to be silent, to silence.
 esti silentigita, to be silenced.
kuŝi, to lie, to be lying.
 kuŝiĝi, to lie down, to go to bed.
 kuŝigi, to cause to lie, to lay.
 esti kuŝigita, to be laid.
stari, to stand, to be standing.
 stariĝi, to rise, to stand up, to become erect.
 starigi, to raise, to cause to stand up, to erect.
 esti starigita, to be raised, to be erected.
FACTUAL CONDITIONS.

240. A conditional sentence consists of two parts, an assumption and a conclusion. The assumption is a clause (introduced usually by the conjunction se, if) which assumes something as true or realized. The conclusion is a statement whose truth or realization depends upon the truth or realization of the assumption. Factual conditions (conditions of fact) may deal with the present, past or future time:

240. A conditional sentence has two parts: an assumption and a conclusion. The assumption is a clause (usually introduced by the conjunction if) that takes something to be true or real. The conclusion is a statement that is true or real based on the truth or realization of the assumption. Factual conditions (conditions of fact) can refer to the present, past, or future:

Se li vidas tion, li ploras, if he sees that, he weeps (is weeping).
Se li vidis tion, li ploris, if he saw that, he wept.
Li ploros, se li vidos tion, he will weep, if he sees that.
Se li venis hieraŭ, li foriros morgaŭ, if he came yesterday, he will go away tomorrow.
Se li estas vidinta tion, li nun ploras, if he has seen that, he now is weeping.
Se tio estas vidota, li estas punota, if that is going to be seen, he is going to be punished.
Se li estas kaptita, li estos jam punita, if he has been captured, he will already have been punished.

If he sees that, he weeps, if he sees that, he weeps (is weeping).
If he saw that, he wept, if he saw that, he wept.
He will weep, if he sees that, he will weep, if he sees that.
If he came yesterday, he will go away tomorrow, if he came yesterday, he will go away tomorrow.
If he has seen that, he now is weeping, if he has seen that, he now is weeping.
If that is going to be seen, he is going to be punished, if that is going to be seen, he is going to be punished.
If he has been captured, he will already have been punished, if he has been captured, he will already have been punished.

Vocabulary.
ambaŭ, both (238).
azen-o, ass, donkey.
ben-i, to bless.
dors-o, back.
form-o, form.
halt-i, to stop (intrans.).
monaĥ-o, monk.
mut-a, dumb, mute.
orel-o, ear.
petol-a, mischievous.
propr-a, own, one's own.
se, if.
spir-i, to breathe.
turment-i, to torment.
LA MONAĤOJ KAJ LA AZENO.

Iam du monaĥoj reiris tra la arbaro al la monaĥejo, dum grade krepuskiĝis. Ambaŭ portis pezajn sakojn da terpomoj, kaj baldaŭ laciĝis, sed ne sciis kion fari. Okaze ili ekvidis azenon ligitan al arbo, kaj unu monaĥo, haltinte, diris petole al la alia "Se vi anstataŭos la beston, mi havos portanton por miaj propraj sakoj, kaj ankaŭ por la viaj." Lia kunulo respondis "Nu, se la azeno portos miajn sakojn, mi mem ĝoje restos en ĝia loko." Ĵus dirite, tuj farite (no sooner said than done). Malliginte la ligaĵojn kiuj tenis la azenon, ili ĵetis la sakojn trans la dorson de la utila besto. Unu monaĥo tuj forkondukis la azenon, dum ambaŭ viroj laŭte ridis. Post tio, la dua monaĥo sin ligis per la sama ŝnurego kiu antaŭe tenis la azenon. Kiam revenis la kamparano, kies azeno estis ĵus ŝtelita, li ekhaltis, multe mirigite, vidante homon tie ligita. La monaĥo anoncis al li, "Ĉar mi estis tro manĝema, Dio faris azenon el mi, antaŭ du jaroj. Mi ĵus rericevis mian propran formon." Tuj la kredema kamparano invitis la petolan monaĥon al sia hejmo. La monaĥo restis tiun nokton ĉe la kamparano, kaj la sekvintan tagon li foriris, beninte la kamparanon, sed kaŝe ridante pri la afero. Tiam la kamparano iris vendejon, por aĉeti alian azenon. Li ekvidis sian propran azenon, kiun la unua monaĥo estis sendinta tien, post sia reveno al la monaĥejo. La malsaĝa kamparano, kliniĝinte al la besto, diris "Ho, bona monaĥo, mi vidas ke duan fojon vi jam estis tro manĝema!" La muta besto forte svingis la orelojn kaj skuis la kapon, pro la varma elspiraĵo apud sia orelo. Tio ŝajne estis respondo al la ĵus diritaj vortoj, tial la malsaĝa kamparano ree aĉetis sian propran azenon. Ĉiam poste li nek turmentis nek eĉ laborigis ĝin, kredante la azenon la sankta monaĥo mem.

As the monks made their way back through the forest to the monastery, twilight was gradually settling in. Both were carrying heavy sacks of potatoes and soon grew tired, but didn't know what to do. Eventually, they spotted a donkey tied to a tree, and one monk stopped and jokingly said to the other, "If you take the place of the animal, I’ll have a porter for my own sacks, and yours too." His companion replied, "Well, if the donkey will carry my sacks, I’ll gladly stay in its place." No sooner said than done. They untied the ropes that held the donkey, tossed the sacks over the back of the useful animal, and one monk immediately led the donkey away while both men laughed loudly. After that, the second monk tied himself up with the same rope that had previously held the donkey. When the farmer returned, whose donkey had just been taken, he stopped, greatly surprised, to see a man tied up there. The monk announced to him, "Because I was too greedy, God turned me into a donkey two years ago. I just got my own form back." Immediately, the gullible farmer invited the joking monk to his home. The monk stayed that night with the farmer, and the next day he left, blessing the farmer while secretly laughing about the whole thing. Then the farmer went to the market to buy another donkey. He spotted his own donkey, which the first monk had sent there after returning to the monastery. The foolish farmer, bending down to the animal, said, "Oh, good monk, I see that for a second time you’ve been too greedy!" The dumb beast swung its ears and shook its head vigorously due to the warm breath next to its ear. This seemed to be a response to the recently spoken words, and so the foolish farmer bought back his own donkey. From then on, he neither tormented nor even worked it, believing the donkey to be the holy monk himself.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. If the subjects of any kingdom whatever did not have a king, in ancient times, they usually asked the sacred gods about it. 2. If the gods informed (
sciigis
) them that whatever man would come to the temple first would become their king, they immediately chose the first comer (
la unuan veninton
) king. 3. Whoever was chosen king made the blessed gods a thank-offering, which consisted of something out of his own possessions (227, a). 4. Gordius did not offer to the gods merely the yoke of his wagon, but the whole wagon. 5. A knot of rope was tied between the yoke and the pole. 6. People soon began to say, "If any one soever can untie that knot, he will become ruler of Asia." 7. If any other men tried to untie that rope, they failed. 8. Alexander, though (
tamen
), had scarcely arrived when he drew (out) his sword from the scabbard, and cut the knot. 9. If you will take-a-seat, I will tell you about the two mischievous monks, returning to the monastery. 10. Both were breathing with difficulty, and stopped to rest. 11. Having noticed a donkey near by, they untied it. 12. One led the long-eared dumb animal away, while the other tied himself in its own place. 13. The credulous (192) peasant believed everything which was told (54) him, even that the monk had formerly had the form of an ass.
LESSON LII.
THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.

241. That indication of the speaker's frame of mind which is given by the form of the verb is called the mood of the verb. All verbs given so far have been in the indicative mood, which represents an act or state as a reality or fact, or in the infinitive mood, which expresses the verbal idea in a general way, resembling that of a substantive. The conditional mood does not indicate whether or not the act or state mentioned is a fact, but merely expresses the speaker's idea of its likelihood or certainty, or is used in an assumption or conclusion dealing with suppositions, not with actual facts. The ending of the conditional mood is -us. The conjugation of vidi in the aoristic tense of the conditional mood is as follows:

241. The way the speaker feels is shown by the form of the verb, which is known as the mood of the verb. All the verbs we've looked at so far have been in the indicative mood, which presents an action or state as a reality or fact, or in the infinitive mood, which expresses the verbal idea in a general way, similar to a noun. The conditional mood doesn't state whether the action or state is a fact; it only reflects the speaker's perception of its likelihood or certainty, or it’s used in hypothetical situations or conclusions that involve assumptions rather than actual facts. The ending of the conditional mood is -us. The conjugation of vidi in the aoristic tense of the conditional mood is as follows:

mi vidus, I should see.
vi vidus, you would see.
li (ŝi, ĝi) vidus, he (she, it) would see.
ni vidus, we should see.
vi vidus, you would see.
ili vidus, they would see.

I should see.
You would see.
He (she, it) would see.
We should see.
You would see.
They would see.

COMPOUND TENSES OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.

242. In addition to the aoristic tense, the conditional mood has three active and three passive compound tenses, formed by combining the participles with the aoristic tense of esti in the conditional mood. A synopsis of vidi in these compound tenses is as follows:

242. Besides the aoristic tense, the conditional mood has three active and three passive compound tenses, created by combining the participles with the aoristic tense of esti in the conditional mood. Here's a summary of vidi in these compound tenses:

Active Voice.
Present:mi estus vidanta,I should be seeing.
Past:mi estus vidinta,I should have seen.
Future:mi estus vidonta,I should be about to see.
Passive Voice.
Present:mi estus vidata,I should be seen.
Past:mi estus vidita,I should have been seen.
Future:mi estus vidota,I should be about to be seen.
LESS VIVID CONDITIONS.

243. A conditional sentence dealing with suppositions concerning events in present or future time is called a less vivid condition (Less vivid, in contrast to factual conditions (240), which are vivid, because they deal with facts.), and the conditional mood is used in both the assumption and the conclusion:

243. A conditional sentence that deals with hypotheticals about events in the present or the future is called a less vivid condition (Less vivid, in contrast to factual conditions (240), which are vivid because they deal with facts.), and the conditional mood is used in both the assumption and the conclusion:

Se li vidus tion, li plorus, if he should see that, he would weep.
Mi ĝoje helpus vin, se mi povus, I would gladly help you, if I could.
Se vi metus ilin sur la dorson de la azeno, ĝi portus ilin, if you should put them on the donkey's back, it would carry them.
La petola junulo turmentus la monaĥon, se li revenus, the mischievous youth would torment the monk, if he should return.
Se li estus kaptata, li estus punata, if he should be caught, he would be punished.

If he saw that, he would cry, if he should see that, he would weep.
I would gladly help you, if I could, I would gladly help you, if I could.
If you put them on the donkey's back, it would carry them, if you should put them on the donkey's back, it would carry them.
The mischievous young man would torment the monk if he came back, the mischievous youth would torment the monk, if he should return.
If he got caught, he would be punished, if he should be caught, he would be punished.

INDEPENDENT USE OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.

244. The conditional mood may be used in a conclusion whose assumption is merely implied, serving thus to soften or make vague the statement or question in which it is used:

244. The conditional mood can be used in a conclusion where the assumption is just implied, which helps to soften or make the statement or question less direct in which it appears:

Mi ĝoje helpus vin, I would gladly help you.
Ĉu vi bonvole dirus al mi? Would you kindly tell me?
Kiu volus enspiri tian aeron? Who would wish to inhale such air?
Estus bone reteni vian propran, it would be well to keep your own.
La ĉielo vin benus pro tio, Heaven would bless you for that.

I would happily help you, I would gladly help you.
Could you please tell me? Would you kindly tell me?
Who would want to breathe air like that? Who would wish to inhale such air?
It’s best to hold onto what’s yours, it would be well to keep your own.
Heaven would bless you for it, Heaven would bless you for that.

THE PREFIX DIS-.

245. The prefix dis- indicates separation or movement in several different directions at once:

245. The prefix dis- indicates separation or movement in several different directions at once:

disdoni, to distribute.
dispeli, to dispel.
disigi, to separate (trans.).
disiĝi, to separate (intrans.).
disiĝo, separation, schism.
dissendi, to send around.

Cf. the English prefix dis- in disperse, disseminate, distribute, etc.

Cf. the English prefix dis- in disperse, disseminate, distribute, etc.

Vocabulary.
ĉes-i, to cease, to leave off.
dens-a, dense.
difin-i, to define.
ekzist-i, to exist.
flu-i, to flow.
gravit-i, to gravitate.
kaŭz-i, to cause.
leĝ-o, law.
natur-o, nature.
objekt-o, object.
plu, further, more.
turn-i, to turn (trans.).

The adverb plu gives an idea of continuance to the word which it modifies. When used with ne, the two together give an idea of cessation concerning a previous continuous act or state: Ambaŭ parolos plu morgaŭ, both will talk further tomorrow. Mi ne plu haltos, I shall not stop (any) more. Li ne plu ŝajnis muta, he no longer seemed mute.

The adverb plu suggests continuation to the word it modifies. When used with ne, together they indicate the end of a previously ongoing action or state: Ambaŭ parolos plu morgaŭ, both will talk further tomorrow. Mi ne plu haltos, I won’t stop anymore. Li ne plu ŝajnis muta, he no longer seemed mute.

PRI LA GRAVITADO.

1. Ofte oni parolas pri la pezeco de diversaj objektoj. Tia pezeco estas kaŭzata de la forto kiun oni nomas la gravitado. Pro tiu forto ne nur objektoj sur la tero, sed ankaŭ la tero mem, havas konatan pezecon, kiun la kleruloj jam antaŭ longe kalkulis. La suno kaj la luno simile havas pezecon, ĉar ili ambaŭ, same kiel la tero, moviĝas laŭ tiu sama gravitado kiu efektive regas ĉiujn el la ĉielaj korpoj. Se la gravitado ĉesus ekzisti, la riveroj ne plu fluus antaŭen en siaj fluejoj (beds). Ne fluante de altaj ĝis malaltaj lokoj, la akvo disfluus, aŭ restus tie, kie ajn ĝi okaze estus. Neniom da pluvo falus; kontraŭe, la malsekaĵo en la aero ankoraŭ restus tie, en la formo de densaj mallumaj ĉiamaj nuboj. Ĉiuj vivaj estaĵoj (beings), ĉiuj konstruaĵoj, efektive ĉio, baldaŭ disflugus de la rapide turniĝanta mondo. Ĉiuj ĉi (all these) nun devas resti sur la tero, tial ke la gravitado restigas ilin ĉi tie. Se la gravitado ne plu ekzistus, nenio restus plu sur la tero. La aero mem ne plu ĉirkaŭus nin, sed ĝi ankaŭ forlasus la mondon, tuj maldensiĝinte (having become rarefied). La fama angla filozofo Newton estis la unua, kiu studadis la kialon (reason) de la falado de objektoj. Li komencis, laŭ la rakonto, per okaza ekrigardo al falantaj pomoj en sia propra pomarbejo. Antaŭ tri jarcentoj, li eltrovis ke estas tia forto kia la gravitado, kaj difinis la naturajn leĝojn laŭ kiuj la gravitado sin montras. Ĉi tiu forto, kiu restigas ĉion sur la tero, estas tamen la kaŭzo de nia laciĝado, kiam ni marŝas aŭ kuras, ĉar ĝi faras nin pezaj, kaj tial ni ofte deziras halti kaj ripozi. Estas ankaŭ la malfacileco en la superado de tiu sama forto, kiu faras tiel malfacila la konstruadon de utilaj aerŝipoj.

1. People often talk about the weight of various objects. This weight is caused by a force called gravity. Because of this force, not only do objects on Earth have a known weight, but the Earth itself has a weight that scientists calculated a long time ago. The sun and the moon also have weight because they, like the Earth, move according to the same gravity that governs all celestial bodies. If gravity were to stop existing, rivers would no longer flow in their beds. Without flowing from high to low places, water would spread out or stay where it randomly ended up. No rain would fall; instead, the moisture in the air would remain in the form of dense, dark clouds. All living beings, all buildings, in fact, everything, would soon be scattered from the rapidly spinning world. All these now need to stay on the ground because gravity keeps them here. If gravity no longer existed, nothing would remain on Earth. Even the air would no longer surround us but would leave the world as it quickly became rarefied. The famous English philosopher Newton was the first to study the reason for objects falling. According to the story, he began with a chance glance at falling apples in his own orchard. Three centuries ago, he discovered that there is such a force as gravity and defined the natural laws under which gravity manifests. This force, which keeps everything on Earth, is also the reason we feel fatigued when we walk or run, as it makes us heavy, and thus we often want to stop and rest. It is also the difficulty in overcoming this same force that makes constructing useful airships so challenging.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Newton was an Englishman who lived three centuries ago. 2. One day he was walking in his orchard, and, noticing the falling apples, he stood still (ekhaltis) and began to wonder why they fall. 3. He studied the cause of their falling, wishing to discover whatever laws of nature he could. 4. He watched various falling objects, and tried to calculate their velocity (rapideco). 5. Finally he recognized that force which is called gravitation. 6. Of course (kompreneble) gravitation had always existed, but its laws were not noticed or clearly defined until Newton studied the matter. 7. If gravitation should not exist any more, no rain would fall, but instead of condensing, the moisture would remain above our heads in eternal clouds. 8. But gradually the moisture and the air itself, becoming rarefied, would fly away from the earth, being held no longer by the force of gravitation. 9. The water in the rivers would leave off flowing (cease to flow) on toward the sea, because now the water flows from high to low places only on account of gravitation. 10. Instead of gravitating toward the sea, in fact, the water would flow in every direction (245) out of the riverbeds, or would remain there, without moving at all (tute ne movante). 11. Nothing on earth would remain here very long, but everything would fly off the quickly moving world, and leave it entirely bare. Soon, also, the earth itself would break-into-pieces (245).

1. Newton was an Englishman who lived three centuries ago. 2. One day, he was walking in his orchard and, noticing the falling apples, he stood still (ekhaltis) and began to wonder why they fall. 3. He studied the cause of their falling, hoping to discover any laws of nature he could. 4. He watched various falling objects and tried to calculate their speed (rapideco). 5. Finally, he identified the force called gravitation. 6. Of course (kompreneble), gravitation had always existed, but its laws had not been noticed or clearly defined until Newton investigated the subject. 7. If gravitation were to no longer exist, rain would not fall; instead of condensing, moisture would remain above us in eternal clouds. 8. Gradually, however, the moisture and the air itself, becoming thinner, would drift away from the earth, no longer held by the force of gravitation. 9. The water in the rivers would stop flowing toward the sea because it currently flows from high to low places solely because of gravitation. 10. Instead of flowing toward the sea, the water would spread out in every direction (245) from the riverbeds, or it would stay there, completely still (tute ne movante). 11. Nothing on earth would stay here for long; everything would fly off into the fast-moving world, leaving it completely bare. Soon, the earth itself would break apart (245).

LESSON LIII.
CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT.

246. A condition contrary to fact indicates that the opposite of what is mentioned has really taken place or is taking place. It expresses the speaker's certainty that an act or state would have been realized, if some other act or state were also realized. Such conditions cannot refer to the future, but only to present or past time. The conditional mood is used:

246. A condition contrary to fact indicates that the opposite of what has been mentioned has actually happened or is happening. It shows that the speaker is sure that an action or situation would have occurred if another action or situation had also occurred. Such conditions can only refer to the present or past, not the future. The conditional mood is used:

Se vi estus turninta vin, vi estus vidinta tion, if you had turned, you would have seen that.
Se la malsekaĵo ne estus densiĝinta, ne estus pluvinte, if the moisture had not condensed, it would not have rained.
Se li estus kaptita, li estus punita, if he had been caught, he would have been punished.
Se li estus sidanta tie, mi vidus lin, if he were (if he should be) sitting there, I should see him.
Se la gravitado ne ekzistus, tiu pluvo ne estus falanta, if gravitation did not (should not) exist, that rain would not be falling.

If you had turned, you would have seen that.
If you had turned, you would have seen that.
If the moisture hadn't condensed, it wouldn't have rained.
If the moisture hadn't condensed, it wouldn't have rained.
If he had been caught, he would have been punished.
If he had been caught, he would have been punished.
If he were sitting there, I would see him.
If he were (if he should be) sitting there, I would see him.
If gravity didn't exist, that rain wouldn't be falling.
If gravity didn't (shouldn't) exist, that rain wouldn't be falling.

THE VERB DEVI.

247. The verb devi (cf. devo, duty) is equivalent to the verb must (which in English has no future, past, infinitive, etc.), and to to have to, to be obliged to, etc., carrying the idea of must into all tenses and moods. In the conditional mood its meaning is softened into a vaguer sense (of moral obligation), and carries the idea of ought:

247. The verb devi (cf. devo, duty) is similar to the verb must (which in English doesn't have future, past, infinitive, etc.), as well as to have to, to be obliged to, etc., extending the idea of must across all tenses and moods. In the conditional mood, its meaning is softened to a more vague sense (of moral obligation) and conveys the idea of ought:

Objektoj en la aero devas fali, objects in the air have to fall.
Ni devis agi laŭ la leĝoj, we had to act according to the laws.
Vi devos iri, you must (will have to) go.
Ŝi ne volas devi fari tion, she does not wish to have to do that.
Ili devigis min iri, they compelled me to go.
Vi devus iri, you should go (you ought to go).
Oni devus pensi antaŭ ol paroli, one ought to think before speaking.
Li estus devinta veni, he ought to have come.
Tio devus esti farita, that ought to have been done.

Objects in the air have to fall.
We had to act according to the laws.
You will have to go.
She doesn’t want to have to do that.
They made me go.
You should go.
One should think before speaking.
He should have come.
That should have been done.

THE PREPOSITION SEN.

248. The preposition sen, without, indicates the omission, absence or exclusion of that which is expressed by its complement. It may be used as a prefix (160), giving a sense of deprivation or exclusion (like that given by the English suffix -less):

248. The preposition sen, without, indicates the omission, absence, or exclusion of what is expressed by its complement. It can also be used as a prefix (160), conveying a sense of deprivation or exclusion (similar to the English suffix -less):

Li difinis la vorton sen eraro, he defined the word without an error.
La rivero senĉese fluas, the river flows without ceasing.
Tio estas ne nur senutila sed eĉ malutila, that is not only useless but even harmful.
Li ne plu estas senmona, he is no longer penniless.
Li sentime alproksimiĝis al ĝi, he fearlessly approached it.

He defined the word perfectly, he defined the word without an error.
The river flows continuously, the river flows without ceasing.
That is not just useless but even harmful, that is not only useless but even harmful.
He is no longer broke, he is no longer penniless.
He approached it without fear, he fearlessly approached it.

English phrases containing "without" as in "without reading," must be changed to phrases clearly containing verbal nouns, as "without the reading of," before translating into an Esperanto phrase with sen. Otherwise a participle with ne should replace the phrase (222): Sen la legado de tio, mi ne komprenus, without (the) reading (of) that, I should not understand. Ne leginte tion, mi ne komprenus, without reading (not having read) that, I should not understand.

English phrases containing "without," like "without reading," should be changed to phrases that clearly contain verbal nouns, such as "without the reading of," before translating into an Esperanto phrase with sen. Otherwise, a participle with ne should replace the phrase (222): Sen la legado de tio, mi ne komprenus, without (the) reading (of) that, I should not understand. Ne leginte tion, mi ne komprenus, without reading (not having read) that, I should not understand.

Vocabulary.
akuz-i, to accuse.
instru-i, to teach.
kondamn-i, to condemn.
konfes-i, to confess, to admit.
konscienc-o, conscience.
kulp-o, guilt.
merit-i, to deserve.
nobl-a, noble.
pardon-i, to pardon.
pek-i, to sin.
prav-a, right, correct.
sen, without (248).
So-krato, Socrates.
venen-o, poison.
LA FILOZOFO SOKRATO.

Unu el la plej famaj grekaj filozofoj estis nomita Sokrato. Li estis malbela malalta persono, kun senhara kapo kaj dika korpo, sed malgraŭ tio li estis treege bona, nobla kaj saĝa. Li instruadis per interparolado kun la lernantoj. Kutime li komencis per demando pri io ajn, pri kio la aŭskultanto respondos. Fine, la lernanto grade komprenis ĉu liaj propraj opinioj pri la afero estas pravaj. Ankoraŭ nun oni nomas tiun metodon de instruado per la interparolado "la Sokrata metodo." Sokrato diradis tute sen timo ĉion, kion li pensis, eĉ pri la dioj kaj pri la nekredeblaj rakontoj pri la dioj. Se li ne estus tiel multe klariginta, eble li estus vivinta pli longan tempon. Sed multaj personoj malamis lin, precipe ĉar li donis novajn ideojn al la junuloj, kiuj sekve komencis pensi por si mem, anstataŭ fari tion kion faras ĉiu alia. Tial oni akuzis Sokraton en la juĝejo, nomante lin pekanto kaj malbonfaranto, unue, ĉar li ne disdonas oferojn al la dioj, due, ĉar li enkondukas novajn diojn (ĉar li diris ke supernatura voĉo, kiu sendube estis lia nomo por la konscienco, parolis mallaŭte ĉe lia orelo), trie, ĉar li malbonigas la junularon de la urbo. Se li estus konfesinte la kulpon kaj petinte pardonon, tiam la juĝistoj eble estus punintaj lin per nura (mere) monpago (fine). Sed li fiere respondis ke efektive li multe plibonigas la junularon, kaj anstataŭ esti malutila, aŭ eĉ neutila, li treege utilas al la urbo. Li diris ke oni havas nenian rajton puni lin, sed ke, kaŭze de sia bonfarado al la urbo, li efektive meritas ĉiutagan manĝon senpagan. Tamen, tute ne kompreninte kiel prava Sokrato estas, la juĝistoj mortkondamnis lin. Oni devigis lin trinki la venenon. Iom poste, en la malliberejo, li trankvile adiaŭis siajn plorantajn amikojn, kaj akceptinte la venenan trinkaĵon, sentime ĝin trinkis.

One of the most famous Greek philosophers was named Socrates. He was an unattractive, short man with a bald head and a heavy body, but despite that, he was extremely good, noble, and wise. He taught by having conversations with his students. He usually started with a question about something the listener could respond to. In the end, the student gradually realized whether their own views on the matter were correct. Even today, this method of teaching through dialogue is called "the Socratic method." Socrates spoke without fear about everything he thought, even concerning the gods and the unbelievable stories about them. If he hadn't explained so much, he might have lived longer. But many people hated him, especially because he introduced new ideas to the youth, who then began to think for themselves rather than just doing what everyone else did. Therefore, Socrates was accused in court, labeled as a wrongdoer and miscreant, firstly for not making offerings to the gods, secondly for introducing new gods (because he claimed that a supernatural voice, which was undoubtedly his term for conscience, spoke softly in his ear), and thirdly for corrupting the city's youth. If he had confessed his guilt and asked for forgiveness, the judges might have punished him with just a fine. But he proudly responded that he was actually greatly improving the youth, and instead of being harmful or even useless, he was incredibly beneficial to the city. He said that no one had the right to punish him, but that, because of his good deeds for the city, he truly deserved free meals every day. However, completely failing to understand how right Socrates was, the judges sentenced him to death. They forced him to drink poison. Shortly after, in prison, he calmly said goodbye to his weeping friends and, accepting the poisoned drink, he coldly drank it.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Socrates believed that if one knows about good and evil (201) he will do good, but will not do evil. 2. Therefore he wished to help mankind (la homaron), teaching them what the good is. 3. He also wished to discover for himself what is right and what is wrong. 4. So he asked every one whom he met (about) his opinions, and the one-talking-with [him] would also notice whether his own ideas were right or not. 5. But the fellow-citizens of Socrates were jealous, and hated him, because they did not understand him. 6. Therefore they accused him, called him a sinner, and sent around (245) false reports (falsajn sciigojn) about him. 7. Because he said that conscience guided him (in the form of a soft voice at his ear), they accused him of (pri) introducing (218, b) new gods. 8. They also said that he was corrupting the youth of the city. 9. If Socrates had pleaded guilty, and begged for a fine instead of the death-punishment, without doubt he would have been pardoned and fined (monpunita). 10. But he said "I have never in my life sinned in any way, and I do not deserve any sort of punishment." So the judges condemned him to death by the drinking of poison.

1. Socrates believed that if someone truly understands good and evil (201), they will choose to do good and avoid doing evil. 2. So, he wanted to help humanity (la homaron) by teaching them what goodness is. 3. He also aimed to figure out for himself what is right and wrong. 4. He asked everyone he met about their opinions, and those he spoke with would also reflect on whether their own ideas were correct. 5. However, the people of Athens were jealous and resentful of him because they didn't understand him. 6. As a result, they accused him, labeled him a sinner, and spread false reports (falsajn sciigojn) about him. 7. Because he claimed that his conscience guided him (in the form of a soft voice in his ear), they accused him of (pri) introducing new gods (218, b). 8. They also claimed he was corrupting the youth of the city. 9. If Socrates had pleaded guilty and asked for a fine instead of the death penalty, he would have almost certainly been pardoned and fined (monpunita). 10. But he said, "I have never sinned in my life, and I don't deserve any punishment." So, the judges sentenced him to death by drinking poison.

LESSON LIV.
SUMMARY OF CONDITIONS
249.
The three kinds of conditional sentences, together with the moods and tenses used in them, may be tabulated as follows:
NameFactualLess VividContrary to Fact
Subject Matterfactssuppositionsopposite of facts
Timeany(usually) futurepresent or past
Moodindicativeconditionalconditional
Tenseany(usually) aoristic(usually) compound
CLAUSES OF IMAGINATIVE COMPARISON.

250. Clauses of imaginative comparison are introduced by the conjunction kvazaŭ, as though, as if. Sometimes the verb in the comparison may be left unexpressed or merely implied:

250. Clauses of imaginative comparison are introduced by the conjunction kvazaŭ, as though, as if. Sometimes the verb in the comparison can be left out or just suggested:

Li trinkas la venenon kvazaŭ ĝi estus vino, he drinks the poison as though it were wine.
La kondamnito marŝis kvazaŭ kun malfacileco, the condemned man walked as if with difficulty.
Li konfesis kvazaŭ kulpulo, he confessed like a culprit.

He drinks the poison as if it were wine, he drinks the poison as though it were wine.
The condemned man walked as if he had difficulty, the condemned man walked as if with difficulty.
He confessed like a guilty person, he confessed like a culprit.

THE USE OF AL TO EXPRESS REFERENCE.

251. Personal pronouns, and less frequently nouns, may be used with the preposition al to express concern or interest on the part of the person indicated by the complement of this preposition:

251. Personal pronouns, and less often nouns, can be used with the preposition al to show concern or interest from the person indicated by the complement of this preposition:

Li bruligis al si la manon, he burned his hand.
Hi tranĉis al li la barbon, they cut his beard (the beard for him).
Ŝi preparas al ni bonan manĝon, she is preparing us a good meal.
Ĉu vi faros servon al mi? Will you do me a service?

He burned his hand, he burned his hand.
They cut his beard, they cut his beard for him.
She is preparing us a good meal, she is preparing us a good meal.
Will you do me a favor? Will you do me a favor?

The use of al in this sense, approaching that of por but less purposeful and definite, resembles the "dative of reference" and "ethical dative" of other languages, as in French je me suis brulé la langue, I have burned my tongue, German ich wasche mir die Hände, I wash my hands, Latin sese Caesari ad pedes proicerunt, they threw themselves at the feet of Cæsar, Greek τί σοι μαθήσομαι, what am I to learn for you? etc.

The use of al in this context, which is similar to por but less intentional and specific, is like the "dative of reference" and "ethical dative" found in other languages. For example, in French, je me suis brulé la langue means I have burned my tongue; in German, ich wasche mir die Hände means I wash my hands; in Latin, sese Caesari ad pedes proicerunt translates to they threw themselves at the feet of Cæsar; in Greek, τί σοι μαθήσομαι means what am I to learn for you? etc.

252. By an extension of its use in expressing reference, al may often be used in the place of de expressing separation (170), when the use of de might seem to indicate agency (169) or possession (49):

252. By expanding its use in indicating reference, al can often replace de to express separation (170), when using de might suggest agency (169) or possession (49):

La luno estas kaŝata al ni de la nuboj, the moon is hidden from us (to us) by the clouds.
Ĝi estas stelita al mi de li, it has been stolen from me by him.

The moon is hidden from us by the clouds, the moon is hidden from us (to us) by the clouds.
It has been stolen from me by him, it has been stolen from me by him.

This use resembles the "dative of separation" of other languages, as in German es stahl mir das Leben, it stole the life from me, French il me prend la vie, it takes my life, Latin hunc mihi timorem eripe, remove this fear from me, Greek δέξατό οι σκήπτρον, he took his sceptre from him, etc.

This use is similar to the "dative of separation" found in other languages, such as German es stahl mir das Leben, it stole the life from me, French il me prend la vie, it takes my life, Latin hunc mihi timorem eripe, remove this fear from me, Greek δέξατό οι σκήπτρον, he took his sceptre from him, etc.

THE SUFFIX -ESTR-.

253. The suffix -estr- is used to indicate the chief, head, or one in control of that which is expressed in the root:

253. The suffix -estr- is used to indicate the chief, head, or one in control of that which is expressed in the root:

lernejestro, (school) principal.
monaĥestro, abbot.
policestro, chief of police.
urbestro, mayor.
estraro, governing body.
ŝipestro, ship-captain.
Vocabulary.
Aristejd-o, Aristeides.
ekzil-i, to exile.
enu-i, to be wearied, bored.
ĝust-a, exact.
kvazaŭ, as though, as if (250).
ostr-o, oyster.
ostracism-o, ostracism.
popol-o, a people.
pot-o, pot.
senc-o, meaning, sense.
signif-i, to signify.
son-i, to sound.
strang-a, strange.
ŝel-o, shell, bark, peel.

Care must be taken to distinguish ĝusta, exact, ĝuste, exactly, just, from justa, upright, just, juste, justly, and also from the adverb ĵus just.

Care must be taken to distinguish ĝusta, exact, ĝuste, exactly, just, from justa, upright, just, juste, justly, and also from the adverb ĵus just.

LA OSTRACISMO DE ARISTEJDO.

La vorto ostracismo havas interesan devenon (origin). En ĝia komenco oni rekonas la grekan vorton kiu signifas "ŝelon de la ostro." En ĝia fino oni vidas la saman "-ismon " kiu, deveninte de la greka, ankoraŭ estas uzata kiel vortfino en multaj diversaj lingvoj. La nuna senco de la vorto, facile trovebla en anglaj vortaroj (dictionaries), devenas de la jena greka kutimo:

La vorto ostracismo havas interesan komencon (origin). En ĝia komenco oni rekonas la grekan vorton kiu signifas "ŝelo de la ostro." En ĝia fino oni vidas la saman "-ismon" kiu, devenante de la greka, ankoraŭ estas uzata kiel vortfino en multaj diversaj lingvoj. La nuna senco de la vorto, facile trovebla en anglaj vortaroj (dictionaries), devenas de la sekva greka kutimo:

Sepdek jarojn antaŭ ol vivadis Sokrato, oni faris strangan leĝon en lia urbo. Laŭ tiu, oni povis ekzili iun ajn estron kies ideoj pri la administrado de la urbo ne ŝajnis pravaj. Ĉi tion oni povis fari, tute sen juĝado aŭ eĉ akuzado, ĉar oni havis la jenan metodon: se ĉe popola kunveno ses mil urbanoj voĉdonis (vote) kontraŭ iun ajn, tiu estis devigata foriri de la urbo, kaj forresti dek jarojn. Li povis neniel havigi (get) al si pardonon, sed devis tuj foriri kvazaŭ konfesinta kulpulo. Por voĉdonoj, oni skribis la nomon de la kondamnoto sur peco da potaĵo (pottery), aŭ pli ofte sur ostroŝelo. Ĝuste tial oni nomas la kutimon ostracismo. Unufoje, kelkaj malamikoj proponis voĉdonadon pri la ostracismo de tre bona kaj nobla viro, nomita Aristejdo, kiu tute ne meritis tian punadon.

Seven decades before Socrates lived, a strange law was enacted in his city. According to this law, anyone could be exiled if their ideas about governing the city were deemed unacceptable. This could be done without any trial or even accusation, because they had the following method: if at a public assembly six thousand citizens voted against someone, that person was forced to leave the city and stay away for ten years. They could not obtain any pardon and had to leave immediately as if they were confessing to a crime. For votes, they wrote the name of the condemned person on a piece of pottery, or more often, on a oyster shell. This is precisely why the practice is called ostracism. One time, some enemies proposed a vote for the ostracism of a very good and noble man named Aristides, who absolutely did not deserve such punishment.

Antaŭ ol la kunveno disiĝis, kamparano alproksimiĝis al Aristejdo (kiu mem ĉeestis), petante lian helpon, ĉar la neinstruita kamparano ne povis skribi. La saĝulo diris "Kion vi volas skribi sur la ŝelo?" La kamparano, ne sciante ke li parolas al la viro mem, respondis "Aristejdon." Skribinte ĝin, Aristejdo demandis kun trankvila konscienco "Pro ĝuste kiaj pekoj vi malamas Aristejdon?" La kamparano respondis, "Ho, mi ne kaŝos al vi ke mi eĉ ne konas lin! Sed mi deziras ekzili lin nur ĉar min enuigas la sono de lia nomo. Mi tre enuas ĉiam aŭdante lin nomata Aristejdo la justa!"

Before the meeting broke up, a farmer approached Aristeides (who was present), asking for his help because the illiterate farmer couldn't write. The wise man asked, "What do you want to write on the shell?" The farmer, not realizing he was speaking to the man himself, replied, "Aristeides." After writing it down, Aristeides calmly asked, "What exactly are the sins that make you hate Aristeides?" The farmer responded, "Oh, I won't hide it from you—I don't even know him! But I want to exile him just because the sound of his name bores me. I get so tired of always hearing him called Aristeides the Just!"

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Aristeides had just arrived at the popular assembly when a peasant approached him. 2. If Aristeides had not had a pleasant countenance and musical (belsonan) voice, doubtless the peasant would not have asked his help. 3. Ought Aristeides to have written his own name on the oyster-shell or piece of pottery which was going to be used as a vote against him? 4. Without just (exactly) this help, the peasant could not have voted. 5. Doing him the service requested, Aristeides said, as if (250) he himself were not the man under-discussion (205), "Why do you hate Aristeides? 6. Could you tell me how he has sinned against the city?" 7. The silly-creature (132) replied, "Oh, I know nothing about him, but I am weary [of] always hearing him called the just." 8. Ought such persons as that ignorant peasant have-the-right to vote about important affairs? 9. The ancient law about ostracism was a strange [one]. 10. The name of the person to-be-exiled (199) was usually written upon an oyster-shell, and the meaning of the word signifying the custom comes from that. 11. Through (per) ostracism, any leader could be banished, justly or unjustly, without trial of any kind, or explanation of the reasons.

1. Aristeides had just arrived at the popular assembly when a peasant approached him. 2. If Aristeides hadn't had a pleasant face and a musical voice, the peasant probably wouldn't have asked for his help. 3. Should Aristeides have written his own name on the oyster shell or piece of pottery that was going to be used as a vote against him? 4. Without exactly this help, the peasant couldn't have voted. 5. Helping the peasant as requested, Aristeides said, as if he himself weren't the person in question, "Why do you hate Aristeides? 6. Can you tell me how he has wronged the city?" 7. The clueless fellow replied, "Oh, I know nothing about him, but I am tired of always hearing him called the just." 8. Should people like that ignorant peasant have the right to vote on important matters? 9. The ancient law about ostracism was a strange one. 10. The name of the person to be exiled was usually written on an oyster shell, and the term for the practice comes from that. 11. Through ostracism, any leader could be banished, fairly or unfairly, without any kind of trial or explanation.

LESSON LV.
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.

254. For expressions of command, exhortation, entreaty, etc., there is an imperative mood, as in English. The ending of the imperative mood is -u. Beside the aoristic tense, six compound tenses are formed by combining the participles with the imperative mood estu of the auxiliary verb, but these tenses are seldom used. The conjugation of vidi in the aoristic tense of this mood, together with a synopsis in the compound tenses, is as follows:

254. For commands, encouragement, requests, etc., there is an imperative mood, similar to English. The ending for the imperative mood is -u. In addition to the aoristic tense, six compound tenses are created by combining the participles with the imperative mood estu of the auxiliary verb, although these tenses are rarely used. The conjugation of vidi in the aoristic tense of this mood, along with a summary of the compound tenses, is as follows:

Aoristic Tense.
mi vidu!let me see!ni vidu!let us see!
(vi) vidu!(you) see!(vi) vidu!(you) see!
li (ŝi, ĝi) vidu!let him (her, it) see!ili vidu!let them see!
Compound Tenses.
Active.Passive.
Present:mi estu vidanta,Present:mi estu vidata,
Past:mi estu vidinta,Past:mi estu vidita,
Future:mi estu vidonta.Future:mi estu vidota.
RESOLVE AND EXHORTATION.

255. The first person singular of the imperative mood is used to express the speaker's resolve concerning his own action, or an exhortation to himself concerning such action. The first person plural is used to express resolve or exhortation concerning the joint action of the speaker and the person or persons addressed:

255. The first person singular of the imperative mood is used to show the speaker's determination about their own actions, or as a way to urge themselves regarding those actions. The first person plural is used to express determination or encouragement about the combined actions of the speaker and the person or people being addressed:

Mi pensu pri tio! Let me think about that!
Mi ne forgesu tion! I must not (do not let me) forget that!
Ni ekzilu lin! Let us exile him!
Ni ne sidiĝu tie! Let us not sit down there!
Ni estu grize vestitaj! Let us be dressed in gray!

Let me think about that!
I must not forget that!
Let us exile him!
Let us not sit down there!
Let us be dressed in gray!

This force is usually expressed in English by "let" with an accusative and infinitive construction.

This force is typically expressed in English using "let" followed by an accusative and infinitive construction.

COMMANDS AND PROHIBITIONS.

256. The second and third persons of the imperative are used to express peremptory commands and prohibitions.

256. The second and third persons of the imperative are used to give strict commands and prohibitions.

a.
In the
second
person the pronoun is usually omitted, as in English, unless special emphasis is placed upon it:

Estu trankvila! Be calm! (One person is addressed.)
Estu pretaj por akompani min! Be ready to accompany me! (Two or more persons are addressed.)
Parolu kvazaŭ vi komprenus! Talk as though you understood!
Ne fermu tiun pordon! Do not shut that door!
Ne estu vidata tie! Do not be seen there!

Be calm! (One person is addressed.)
Be ready to accompany me! (Two or more persons are addressed.)
Talk as if you understand!
Don't shut that door!
Don't be seen there!

b.
In the
third
person a circumlocution in English is necessary in translation (as
let
,
must
,
are to
,
is to
, etc.):

Li estu zorga! Let him be careful (he must be careful)!
Ŝi ne faru tion! Do not let her do that (she is not to do that)!
Ĉio estu pardonata! Let everything be forgiven!
Oni lasu min trankvila! People are to let me alone!
Ili neniam revenu! Let them never (do not let them ever) return!
La kulpuloj estu punataj! Let the culprits be punished!

He should be careful! He needs to be careful!
She shouldn't do that! She is not allowed to do that!
Everything should be forgiven! Let everything be forgiven!
People should leave me alone! Just let me be!
They should never come back! Do not let them ever return!
The guilty should be punished! Let the culprits be punished!

LESS PEREMPTORY USES OF THE IMPERATIVE.

257. By an extension of its use in resolve, exhortation, command and prohibition, the imperative mood may be employed for less peremptory expressions, such as request, wish, advice, etc., and in questions of deliberation or perplexity, or requests for instruction:

257. By expanding its use in resolving issues, encouraging, commanding, and prohibiting, the imperative mood can also be used for less forceful expressions like request, wish, advice, and in questions of consideration or confusion, or requests for guidance:

Request: Ĉesu tiun bruon, mi petas! Stop that noise, I beg!
Bonvolu fari tion! Please do that!
Pardonu al ni niajn pekojn! Forgive us our sins!
Wish: Ili estu feliĉaj! May they be happy!
Dio vin benu! God bless you!
Vivu la reĝo! (Long) live the king!
Advice: Pensu antaŭ ol agi! Think before acting!
Foriru, se vi ne estas kontenta! Go away, if you are not satisfied!
Consent: Nu, parolu, sed mi ne aŭskultos! Well, talk, but I shall not listen!
Iru tuj, se vi volas. Go at once, if you like.
Question: Ĉu mi faru tion aŭ ne? Am I to do that or not?
Ĉu ni disdonu la librojn? Shall we distribute the books?
Ĉu li estu kondamnita? Shall he be condemned?
Ĉu ili venu ĉi tien? Are they to (shall they) come here?
THE USE OF MOŜTO.

258. The word moŝto may be used alone, or after a title, to denote respect. When used after a title, the title becomes an adjective:

258. The word moŝto can be used by itself or after a title to show respect. When it follows a title, the title acts as an adjective:

Lia reĝa moŝto, his majesty.
Lia juĝista moŝto, his honor the judge.
Ŝia reĝina moŝto, her majesty.
Lia urbestra moŝto, his honor the mayor.
Ĉu via moŝto lin aŭdis? Did your honor (excellency, etc.) hear him?

His royal highness, his majesty.
His judicial highness, his honor the judge.
Her royal highness, her majesty.
His municipal highness, his honor the mayor.
Did your honor hear him? Did your honor (excellency, etc.) hear him?

Vocabulary.
Afrik-o, Africa.
barbar-o, barbarian.
Damokl-o, Damocles.
flank-o, side.
imperi-o, empire.
konsent-i, to consent.
konsil-i, to advise.
moŝt-o, a title (see 258).
ordon-i, to order, to bid.
permes-i, to permit.
plaĉ-i, to please.
sklav-o, slave.
sol-a, sole, only.
volont-e, willingly.
LA GLAVO DE DAMOKLO.

Antaŭ pli multe ol dumil jaroj vivis en Sirakuzo, sur la insulo Sikelio, tre kruela tirano. Li diris al si "Mi estu ĉiopova (all-powerful)!" Tial li faris multe da militadoj, kaj venkis ne nur barbarajn popolojn, sed ankaŭ multajn urbojn en Italujo kaj norda Afriko. Detruinte ĉion sen kompato, li ordonis "La loĝantoj estu vendataj por sklavoj!" Li deziris fari por si, el la venkitaj kaj sklavigitaj popoloj, unu grandan imperion. Sed la urboj ĉie, eĉ en Grekujo, ne kaŝis al li sian grandan malamon al tia tirano. Tial li ĉiam timis pri sia vivo, timante ke iu subite mortigos lin. Unufoje Damoklo, amiko de la tirano, diris al li, "Se mi estus tiel riĉa kaj pova kiel via reĝa moŝto, mi estus treege feliĉa!" La tirano respondis, "Venu al festo ĉe mi, se tio plaĉas al vi, kaj eltrovu ĉu mi devus esti feliĉa aŭ ne." "Mi venos tre volonte," ekkriis Damoklo, "kaj mi dankas vian moŝton pro tia afableco!" La tirano ĝentile respondis "Ho, estas nenio (=you are welcome)! Nur ne forgesu la deciditan horon!" Je la ĝusta horo Damoklo iris al la festo, kie oni donis al li seĝon flanke de la tirano mem. "Manĝu kaj trinku kiom ajn vi volas," konsilis la tirano, "kaj poste ni parolos pri la feliĉeco." Damoklo tuj konsentis al tia propono, kaj agis laŭ la permeso tiel afable donita al li. Manĝante bonegan manĝaĵon, kaj trinkante dolĉan vinon, li tute ne enuis ĉe la festo. Baldaŭ la tirano diris "Rigardu supren, kaj vidu ĝuste kian feliĉecon mi havas!" Supren rigardinte, Damoklo ekvidis akran glavon, antaŭe kaŝitan al li de kurteno. Subtenate de unu sola haro, la glavo ŝajnis kvazaŭ tuj falonta sur la kapon de Damoklo. "La dioj min helpu!" li ekkriis, forsaltinte de la tablo. Pro la ĵus dirita stranga rakonto, oni ankoraŭ nun nomas la atendadon por io timeginda, kio ŝajnas ĉiam okazonta sed efektive ne okazas, "la glavo de Damoklo."

Way more than two thousand years ago, there lived a very cruel tyrant in Syracuse, on the island of Sicily. He told himself, "I will be all-powerful!" Because of this, he waged many wars and defeated not only barbarian people but also many cities in Italy and North Africa. Having destroyed everything without mercy, he ordered, "The inhabitants should be sold into slavery!" He wanted to create a massive empire for himself from the conquered and enslaved peoples. However, the cities everywhere, even in Greece, did not hide their intense hatred for such a tyrant. Therefore, he constantly feared for his life, worrying that someone would suddenly kill him. One time, Damocles, a friend of the tyrant, said to him, "If I were as rich and powerful as your royal highness, I would be incredibly happy!" The tyrant replied, "Come to a feast with me, if you like, and find out whether I should be happy or not." "I would love to come," exclaimed Damocles, "and I thank your highness for such kindness!" The tyrant politely responded, "Oh, it’s nothing! Just don’t forget the appointed time!" At the right hour, Damocles went to the feast, where he was given a seat right next to the tyrant. "Eat and drink as much as you want," advised the tyrant, "and then we will talk about happiness." Damocles immediately agreed to this offer and acted according to the kind permission given to him. Enjoying a delicious meal and drinking sweet wine, he was completely entertained at the feast. Soon the tyrant said, "Look up and see exactly what kind of happiness I have!" Looking up, Damocles saw a sharp sword that had been hidden from him by a curtain. Supported by a single hair, the sword seemed about to fall on Damocles' head at any moment. "Gods help me!" he cried, jumping from the table. Due to this strange story, we still refer to the anticipation of something terrifying that seems always about to happen but actually doesn't happen as "the sword of Damocles."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The word ostracism comes from the Greek word signifying "oyster-shell." 2. It has its present meaning because oyster-shells or pieces of pottery were used for the voting. 3. The story about Aristeides is interesting, but that about the sword of Damocles is also interesting. 4. His friend, the Syracusan tyrant, had permitted all sorts of injustices, against not only barbarians but even Greeks. 5. His only bidding usually was "Let every inhabitant be sold as a slave!" 6. He thought "Let me make one sole empire out of Africa, Italy and Sicily!" 7. Damocles said to him "Your royal highness ought to be very happy!" 8. The tyrant answered, "Come to a feast tomorrow, and find out. I will give you a seat (214, b) beside me." 9. Damocles willingly consented, and went thither. 10. The tyrant advised "Let us eat and drink until midnight, if that would be-pleasing to you. Then let us discuss the problem about happiness." 11. After a few hours Damocles heard a slight sound over his head, and the tyrant said to him, "Look up and you will see what kind of happiness mine is." 12. "Heaven defend me!" exclaimed Damocles, catching sight of a sharp sword hanging by a single (sole) hair.

1. The word ostracism comes from the Greek word meaning "oyster shell." 2. It has its current meaning because oyster shells or pieces of pottery were used for voting. 3. The story about Aristeides is interesting, but so is the story of the sword of Damocles. 4. His friend, the tyrant of Syracuse, allowed all kinds of injustices, not only against outsiders but even against Greeks. 5. His usual command was, "Let every inhabitant be sold into slavery!" 6. He thought, "Let me create one vast empire out of Africa, Italy, and Sicily!" 7. Damocles said to him, "Your royal highness must be very happy!" 8. The tyrant replied, "Come to a feast tomorrow and see for yourself. I will give you a seat beside me." 9. Damocles eagerly agreed and went there. 10. The tyrant suggested, "Let's eat and drink until midnight, if that pleases you. Then we can discuss the issue of happiness." 11. After a few hours, Damocles heard a faint sound above him, and the tyrant said, "Look up and see what kind of happiness I have." 12. "Heaven help me!" cried Damocles, noticing a sharp sword hanging by a single hair.

LESSON LVI.
THE IMPERATIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.

259. The imperative mood is used in a subordinate clause, with a meaning similar to that in its independent use, after a main verb expressing command, exhortation, resolve, consent, wish, etc., or after any word or general expression of command, intention, necessity, expedience, etc. Such clauses are introduced by the conjunction ke:

259. The imperative mood is used in a subordinate clause, with a meaning similar to its independent use, after a main verb expressing command, exhortation, resolve, consent, wish, etc., or after any word or general expression of command, intention, necessity, expedience, etc. These clauses are introduced by the conjunction ke:

Command and Prohibition.
Li diras ke vi iru, he says that you are to go.
Ŝi skribis al li ke li venu, she wrote him to come.
Mi malpermesas ke vi restu, I forbid you to remain.
Ni ordonos ke li estu punata, we shall order that he be punished.

Command and Prohibition.
He says that you should go, he says that you are to go.
She wrote to him to come, she wrote him to come.
I forbid you to stay, I forbid you to remain.
We will order that he be punished, we shall order that he be punished.

Request and Wish.
Mi petas ke vi ne lasu min, I beg that you do not leave me.
Mi petegas ke vi estu trankvilaj, I implore you to be calm.
Li deziras ke ili estu sklavigitaj, he desires that they be enslaved.
Ni volis ke li ne forgesu tion, we wished him not to forget that.

Request and Wish.
I ask that you do not leave me, I beg that you do not leave me.
I implore you to stay calm, I implore you to be calm.
He wants them to be enslaved, he desires that they be enslaved.
We hoped he wouldn't forget that, we wished him not to forget that.

Advice, Consent, Permission.
Mi konsilis al li ke li iru, I advised him to go.
Mi konsentis ke li restu, I consented that he remain.
Ili permesos ke la barbaroj forkuru, they will permit the barbarians to escape (that the barbarians escape).

Advice, Consent, Permission.
I advised him to go, I advised him to go.
I agreed that he stay, I consented that he remain.
They will allow the barbarians to escape, they will permit the barbarians to escape (that the barbarians escape).

Questions.
Li demandas ĉu ili foriru, he inquires whether they are to go away.
Oni demandis ĉu lia moŝto eniru, they asked whether his honor was to enter.
Mi miras ĉu mi faru tion, I wonder whether I am to do that.

Questions.
He asks if they are leaving, he inquires whether they are to go away.
They asked if his honor was coming in, they asked whether his honor was to enter.
I wonder if I should do that, I wonder whether I am to do that.

Intention, Expedience, Necessity, etc.
Ni intencas ke vi estu helpata, we intend that you shall be helped.
Lia propono estas ke ni ricevu la duonon, his proposal is, that we receive the half.
Lia lasta ordono estis, ke vi venu, his last order was that you come.
Estos bone ke vi ne plu nomu lin, it will be well for you not to (that you do not) mention him any more.
Estas dezirinde ke ni havu bonan imperiestron, it is desirable that we have a good emperor.
Estis necese ke ĉiu stariĝu, it was necessary for everyone to rise.
Plaĉos al li ke vi iru, he will be pleased to have you go.

Intention, Expedience, Necessity, etc.
We intend for you to be helped, we intend that you shall be helped.
His proposal is that we get half, his proposal is, that we receive the half.
His last order was that you come, his last order was that you come.
It would be better if you stopped mentioning him, it will be well for you not to (that you do not) mention him any more.
It’s desirable for us to have a good emperor, it is desirable that we have a good emperor.
It was necessary for everyone to stand up, it was necessary for everyone to rise.
He will be happy if you go, he will be pleased to have you go.

In English and some other languages an imperative idea may often be expressed by the infinitive, as "I wish you to go," but in Esperanto this must be expressed by the equivalent of "I wish that you go." The infinitive may not be used except when it can itself be the subject of the verb in such general statements as "it is necessary to go."

In English and some other languages, an imperative idea can often be expressed using the infinitive, like "I wish you to go," but in Esperanto, it must be expressed as "I wish that you go." The infinitive can only be used when it can be the subject of the verb in more general statements such as "it is necessary to go."

THE PREPOSITION JE.

260. Since prepositional uses are not exactly alike in any two languages, it is not always possible to translate a preposition of one language by what is its equivalent in some senses in another. In order to insure some means of translating correctly into Esperanto any prepositional phrase of the national languages, the preposition je is regarded as of rather indefinite meaning. In addition to its use in dates and allusions to time (89, 185), it may be employed when no other preposition gives the exact sense required, especially in protestations and exclamations, expressions of measure (see also 139), and of indefinite connection:

260. Since prepositional uses aren't exactly the same in any two languages, it's not always possible to translate a preposition from one language with its equivalent in another language. To ensure a reliable way of translating any prepositional phrase from national languages into Esperanto, the preposition je is considered to have a rather vague meaning. Besides its use in dates and references to time (89, 185), it can be used when no other preposition conveys the exact meaning needed, especially in protests and exclamations, expressions of measure (see also 139), and in cases of vague connection:

Je la nomo de ĉielo! In the name of Heaven!
Je mia honoro mi ja elfaros tion! On my honor I will accomplish that!
Ĝi estas longa je du mejloj, it is two miles long (long by two miles).
Ili venis je grandaj nombroj, they came in great numbers.
Li estas tenata de la policano, je la brako, per forta ŝnurego, he is held by the policemen, by the arm, with (by) a strong rope.

In the name of Heaven!
On my honor, I will get this done!
It is two miles long.
They came in large numbers.
He is being held by the policeman, by the arm, with a strong rope.

The preposition je is used to express indefinite connection after the following words (other prepositions sometimes used are given in parentheses):

The preposition je is used to show an indefinite connection after the following words (other prepositions that can be used are noted in parentheses):

ekkrii je (pro), to cry out at.
enui je, to be bored with.
fiera je (pri), proud of.
fidi je (al), to rely upon.
ĝoji je (pri), to rejoice at.
gratuli je (pri), congratulate on.
honti je (pri), to be ashamed of.
inda je, worthy of.
interesiĝi je, to take interest in.
kapti je, to seize by.
kontenta je (kun), content with.
kredi je, to believe in.
(sin) okupi je, to busy (oneself) at.
plena je (de), full of.
preni je, to take by.
provizi je (per), to provide with.
riĉigi je (per), to enrich with.
ridi je, to laugh at.
satiĝi je, to be sated with.
senigi je, to deprive of.
simila je (al), similar to.
sopiri je (al), to yearn for.
ŝarĝi je, to load with.
teni je, to hold by.

The translation given for a preposition in any dictionary is the general one which serves in the majority of cases. The finer shades of meaning and real or apparent exceptions can merely be touched upon if mentioned at all.

The translation provided for a preposition in any dictionary is the general one that applies in most situations. The subtle differences in meaning and actual or seemingly exceptions can only be briefly mentioned, if they are mentioned at all.

THE SUFFIX -OP-.

261. The suffix -op- is used to form collective numerals:

The suffix -op- is used to form collective numbers:

duope, by twos, in pairs.
kvarope, by fours.
milope, by thousands.
sesopigi, to form into groups of six.
Vocabulary.
cel-i, to aim.
Cirus-o, Cyrus.
fidi, to rely.
ĝu-i, to enjoy.
honor-o, honor.
krom, beside, save, but.
plen-a, full.
prokrast-i, to delay (trans.).
proviz-i, to provide.
rezult-i, to result.
sopir-i, to yearn, to sigh.
spac-o, space.
terur-a, terrible.
ver-o, truth.
LA MARŜADO DE LA DEKMIL GREKOJ.

Iam Ciruso, nepo de Ciruso Granda, sopiris je la imperio de sia pli maljunafrato, kiu sekvis la patron de ambaŭ fratoj kiel reĝo, aŭ pli ĝuste imperiestro. Decidinte forigi de la reĝeco (to dethrone) sian fraton, Ciruso petis la grekojn ke ili partoprenu (take part) en kelkaj negravaj militadoj. Multaj tiamaj grekoj tre volonte sin okupis je la batalado, pro la granda pago ricevata. La venditaj sklavoj kaj la detruitaj konstruaĵoj ĉiam provizis ilin je multe da riĉaĵo, kaj krom tio la militistoj ŝajnis ĝui eĉ la militadon mem. Estis tute indiferente al ili ĉu la kaŭzo de la militado estas prava kaj justa aŭ ne. Unue Ciruso nur petis ke ili helpu liajn proprajn soldatojn kontraŭ iuj najbaroj. Li kaŝis al ili sian veran celon, ĉar se la grekoj estus suspektintaj tion, kion li intencis fari, ili neniam estus akompanintaj lin tiel malproksimen de sia patrolando. Grade li kondukis ilin trans tutan Azion, kaj fine la dekmil grekoj komprenis ĉion, kaj treege koleriĝis. Paroladante al ili, Ciruso tuj diris "Mi ne permesas ke vi reiru, kaj mi petegas ke vi antaŭen marŝadu kun mi, sen plua (further) prokrasto! Se mi sukcesos kontraŭ mia frato, mi certigas vin je mia honoro ke ĉiu el vi revenos havante sakojn plenajn je riĉaĵo! Estas nur necese ke vi fidu je mi, kaj ĉio estos bona!" Tiam la soldatoj hontis je sia antaŭa timo, kaj kuraĝe antaŭen marŝadis. Fine, apud granda urbo, la frato de Ciruso elvenis havante okcentmil soldatojn, por batali kontraŭ la centmil de Ciruso. Per la helpo de siaj grekoj, Ciruso estis preskaŭ venkinta en terura batalo, kiam subite li ekvidis sian fraton, je malgranda interspaco. Ekkriante "Mi vidas la viron!" li rajdis rekte al la reĝo, ĵetante sian pezan lancon al li. La sola rezulto estis la morto de Ciruso mem, ĉar la amikoj de la reĝo, kvinope kaj sesope atakinte Ciruson, lin tuj mortigis.

I am Cyrus, nephew of Cyrus the Great, overshadowed by the empire of my older brother, who followed our father as king, or more accurately, emperor. Determined to dethrone his brother, Cyrus asked the Greeks to take part in some minor military campaigns. Many Greeks at the time willingly engaged in battle due to the significant pay they received. The captured slaves and destroyed buildings always provided them with plenty of wealth, and besides that, the soldiers seemed to even enjoy the fighting itself. They were completely indifferent to whether the cause of the conflict was right or just. At first, Cyrus only asked for their help against some neighbors. He hid his true intentions from them, because if the Greeks had suspected what he planned to do, they would never have accompanied him so far from their homeland. Gradually, he led them across all of Asia, and eventually the ten thousand Greeks understood everything and became extremely angry. Speaking to them, Cyrus immediately said, "I will not allow you to go back, and I urge you to march forward with me, without any further delay! If I succeed against my brother, I assure you by my honor that each of you will return with bags full of wealth! All you need to do is trust me, and everything will be fine!" Then the soldiers were ashamed of their previous fear and marched bravely onward. Finally, near a great city, Cyrus's brother appeared with eight hundred thousand soldiers to fight against Cyrus's one hundred thousand. With the help of his Greeks, Cyrus was on the verge of victory in a fierce battle when suddenly he caught sight of his brother at a small distance. Shouting, "I see the man!" he rode straight at the king, hurling his heavy spear at him. The only outcome was Cyrus's own death, as the king's friends, attacking Cyrus in groups of five and six, quickly killed him.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Cyrus did not desire that his brother should remain king. 2. He decided, "Let me myself become (fariĝi) king! I should much enjoy that!" 3. So he asked the Greeks to help him in some battles against nearby enemies. 4. Gradually an army (126) of a hundred thousand men, ten thousand of whom were Greeks, gathered (232, b) around him. 5. He led them farther and farther, into the middle of Asia, until finally the Greeks suspected his true aim. 6. They said to each other in terror, "He did not at first propose that we fight against the Great King. Let us return home without delay!" 7. Cyrus addressed (218) them as follows: "Must I permit you to go back? I implore you to be courageous, and I do advise you not to forget your longing for (260) honor! 8. Only be worthy of your leader, and rely upon me! Do you not wish to return home provided with wealth, beside the money which I shall pay to you?" 9. Immediately the soldiers were ashamed of their fear, and advanced by hundreds, full of courage. 10. Soon the brother of Cyrus approached, with (havante) eight hundred thousand men. 11. By the aid of the Greeks, Cyrus won the battle, but he himself lost his life. 12. So neither he nor the Greeks could enjoy the result of their efforts.

1. Cyrus didn’t want his brother to stay king. 2. He thought, "Why not let me be king? I’d really enjoy that!" 3. So, he asked the Greeks to help him fight against nearby enemies. 4. Slowly, an army of a hundred thousand men gathered around him, including ten thousand Greeks. 5. He led them deeper into Asia until the Greeks started to suspect his real intentions. 6. They whispered to each other in fear, "He didn’t originally plan for us to fight the Great King. We should head home right away!" 7. Cyrus spoke to them, saying, "Do I have to let you go back? I urge you to be brave, and please don’t forget your desire for honor! 8. Just be worthy of your leader and trust in me! Don’t you want to return home with wealth, in addition to the payment I’ll give you?" 9. Immediately, the soldiers felt ashamed of their fear and marched forward in groups, filled with courage. 10. Soon, Cyrus's brother approached with eight hundred thousand men. 11. With the Greeks’ help, Cyrus won the battle, but he lost his own life in the process. 12. So, neither he nor the Greeks could enjoy the fruits of their efforts.

LESSON LVII.
CLAUSES EXPRESSING PURPOSE.

262. Purpose may be expressed by a subordinate imperative clause, introduced by por ke:

262. Purpose can be expressed using a subordinate imperative clause, introduced by por ke:

Mi faras ĝin por ke li helpu vin, I do it in order that he may help you.
Mi ekkriis por ke vi aŭdu, I cried out in order that you should hear.
Li venos por ke ni estu feliĉaj, he will come that we may be happy.
Mi studas por ke mi lernu, I study that I may learn.
Ili restu por ke ni punu ilin, let them stay for us to punish them.

I do it so that he can help you, I do it in order that he may help you.
I shouted so that you would hear, I cried out in order that you should hear.
He will come so that we can be happy, he will come that we may be happy.
I study so that I can learn, I study that I may learn.
Let them stay so that we can punish them, let them stay for us to punish them.

Cf. the expression of purpose by the infinitive with por (98), which however cannot be used except when the subject of the main verb is the subject of the subordinate verb, or when the object of the main verb is the subject of the subordinate verb.

Cf. the purpose expressed by the infinitive with por (98), which can only be used when the subject of the main verb is the same as the subject of the subordinate verb, or when the object of the main verb is the subject of the subordinate verb.

FURTHER USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE.

Cf. the accusative of direct object (23), direction of motion (46, 121), time (91), and measure (139).

See the accusative of direct object (23), direction of motion (46, 121), time (91), and measure (139).

263. The accusative of direction of motion is used after nouns from roots expressing motion:

263. The accusative of direction of motion is used after nouns from roots that express motion:

Lia eniro en la urbon estis subita, his entrance into the city was sudden.
La irado tien estos plezuro, (the) going thither will be a pleasure.
Ĝia falado teren timigis min, its falling earthward terrified me.

Lia eniro en la urbon estis subita, his entrance into the city was sudden.
La irado tien estos plezuro, (the) going there will be a pleasure.
Ĝia falado teren timigis min, its falling to the ground terrified me.

264. a. An intransitive verb may be followed by a noun in the accusative case, if the meaning of the noun is related to that of the verb:

264. a. An intransitive verb can be followed by a noun in the accusative case if the noun's meaning is connected to the verb's meaning:

Li vivas agrablan vivon, he lives an agreeable life.
Ŝi dancis belan dancon, she danced a beautiful dance.
Ili ploris maldolĉajn larmojn, they wept bitter tears.

He lives a pleasant life, he lives an agreeable life.
She danced a lovely dance, she danced a beautiful dance.
They shed sorrowful tears, they wept bitter tears.

b. Verbs of motion (iri, veni, pasi, marŝi, veturi, etc.) compounded with prepositions or adverbs (121) indicating direction, also compounds of such verbs as esti and stari with prepositions expressing situation, may be followed by the accusative, instead of by a prepositional phrase in which the preposition is repeated:

b. Motion verbs (iri, veni, pasi, marŝi, veturi, etc.) combined with prepositions or adverbs (121) that indicate direction, as well as compounds of verbs like esti and stari with prepositions that express location, can be followed directly by the accusative instead of a prepositional phrase where the preposition is repeated:

La viro preterpasis la domon, the man passed (by) the house.
Lin antaŭvenis du sklavoj, there preceded (came before) him two slaves.
Ni supreniru la ŝtuparon, let us go up the stairs.
Mi ĉeestis la feston, I attended (was present at) the entertainment.
Mi kontraŭstaras vian opinion, I oppose (withstand) your opinion.

The man walked past the house, the man passed (by) the house.
Two slaves came before him, there preceded (came before) him two slaves.
Let’s go up the stairs, let us go up the stairs.
I was at the party, I attended (was present at) the entertainment.
I disagree with your opinion, I oppose (withstand) your opinion.

c. The slight change in meaning given by pri used as a prefix may render intransitive verbs transitive. The same is true of el prefixed to intransitive verbs not expressing motion:

c. The small change in meaning that pri adds as a prefix can make intransitive verbs transitive. The same applies to el being prefixed to intransitive verbs that don't express motion:

Ŝi priploris la mortintan birdon, she mourned the dead bird.
Mi pripensos la aferon, I shall consider (think over) the matter.
Ni ĝin priparolos, we shall talk it over.
Li klare elparolas la vortojn, he pronounces the words clearly.

She mourned the dead bird.
I will think about it.
We will discuss it.
He pronounces the words clearly.

In this use pri resembles the English and German inseparable prefix be-, as in English bemoan, bewail, bethink, bespeak, German beklagen, besprechen, sich , etc.

In this usage, pri is similar to the English and German inseparable prefix be-, as seen in English words like bemoan, bewail, bethink, bespeak, and the German words beklagen, besprechen, sich, and so on.

265. The accusative may be used after verbs of such meaning that either a prepositional phrase or an accusative would seem correct:

265. The accusative can be used after verbs that allow for either a prepositional phrase or an accusative to seem appropriate:

Mi pardonas lin (al li), I pardon (grant pardon to) him.
Mi helpis lin (al li), I helped (gave aid to) him.
Ĝi plaĉas min (al mi), it pleases (is pleasing to) me.
Li obeis nin (al ni), he obeyed (was obedient to) us.
Ŝi ridis mian timon (je mia timo), she ridiculed (laughed at) my fear.

I forgive him, I pardon (grant pardon to) him.
I helped him, I helped (gave aid to) him.
It pleases me, it pleases (is pleasing to) me.
He obeyed us, he obeyed (was obedient to) us.
She laughed at my fear, she ridiculed (laughed at) my fear.

When ambiguity would be caused, as by the presence of another accusative, this construction may not be employed. One may say pardonu nin, but must say pardonu al ni niajn pekojn.

When ambiguity might arise, such as from the presence of another accusative, this construction shouldn't be used. You can say pardonu nin, but you must say pardonu al ni niajn pekojn.

266. The accusative may be used after certain adverbs which are normally followed by a prepositional phrase:

266. The accusative can be used after certain adverbs that usually take a prepositional phrase:

Rilate tion (rilate al tio), in regard to that.
Escepte tion (escepte de tio), with the exception of that.
Koncerne la aferon (koncerne je la afero), concerning the affair.
Kompare la alian (kompare kun la alia), in comparison with the other.
Konforme la leĝon (konforme al la leĝo), in conformity to the law.

Relation, regarding that.
Exception, with the exception of that.
Concerning the matter, about the affair.
Compared to the other, in comparison with the other.
In accordance with the law, following the law.

SYNOPSIS OF THE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.
267.vidi, to see. 
ACTIVE.PASSIVE.
INDICATIVE.
Present.
(Aoristic) mi vidas
(Progressive) mi estas vidanta
mi estas vidata
Past.
(Aoristic) mi vidis
(Imperfect) mi estis vidanta
mi estis vidata
Future.
(Aoristic) mi vidos
(Progressive) mi estos vidanta
mi estos vidata
Perfect.
mi estas vidinta mi estas vidita
Pluperfect.
mi estis vidinta mi estis vidita
Future Perfect.
mi estos vidinta mi estos vidita
Periphrastic Futures.
(Present).
mi estas vidonta mi estas vidota
(Past).
mi estis vidonta mi estis vidota
(Future).
mi estos vidonta mi estos vidota
CONDITIONAL.
Present.
(Aoristic) mi vidus
(Progressive) mi estus vidanta
mi estus vidata
Past.
mi estus vidinta mi estus vidita
Future.
mi estus vidonta mi estus vidota
IMPERATIVE.
Present.
(Aoristic) mi vidu
(Progressive) mi estu vidanta
mi estu vidata
Past.
mi estu vidinta mi estu vidita
Future.
mi estu vidonta mi estu vidota
INFINITIVE.
Present.
(Aoristic) vidi
(Progressive) esti vidanta
esti vidata
Perfect.
esti vidinta esti vidita
Future.
esti vidonta esti vidota
THE SUFFIX -UM-.

268. The indefinite suffix -um- serves the same general purpose in word formation which je serves as an indefinite preposition (260):

268. The indefinite suffix -um- has the same general function in creating words as je does as an indefinite preposition (260):

aerumi, to air.
buŝumo, muzzle.
gustumi, to taste.
kolumo, collar.
plenumi, to fulfil.
proksimume, approximately.
Vocabulary.
eben-a, level, even.
escept-o, exception.
esper-i, to hope.
fremd-a, foreign.
histori-o, history.
kompar-i, to compare.
koncern-i, to concern.
konform-i, to conform.
nepr-e, inevitably, certainly.
obe-i, to obey.
obstin-a, obstinate.
promes-i, to promise.
rilat-o, relation.
sat-a, satiated.
sav-i, to save.
verk-i, to compose (books or music).
LA REIRADO DE LA DEKMILO.

La grekaj militistoj sentis grandan teruron kiam Ciruso ne plu vivis. La celo de la longa marŝado ne povis esti plenumata, pro la morto de la obstina trokuraĝa militestro mem. Kvankam la grekoj estis venkintoj, ili estis tute solaj en fremda lando, ĉirkaŭitaj de barbaroj kiuj, per trompemaj proponoj kaj falsaj promesoj pri amikaj interrilatoj, tuj okazigis la morton de la grekaj estroj. Senigite je siaj estroj, la kompatindaj viroj tute malesperis. Sed kelkaj subestroj, rapide kunveniginte la soldatojn, diris, "Ni mem kondukos vin per kiel eble plej rekta vojo hejmen! Ni faros nian eblon (utmost) por ke ni ĉiuj estu savitaj!" Ĉar restis nenio alia por fari, la malfacila malgaja reirado de la grekoj komenciĝis sen prokrasto. Ili transiris varmegajn ebenaĵojn (plains), supreniris kaj malsupreniris krutajn neĝkovritajn montojn, meze de la vintro, kaj sen pontoj transiris larĝajn riverojn. Ĉie la malfidindaj barbaroj atakis ilin, kvazaŭ por ke neniu greko restu viva. Krom tio, la grekoj mortis dekope kaj dudekope ĉiutage, pro varmegeco, malvarmegeco, laceco kaj malsateco (hunger). Fine, post nekredeblaj suferoj, la restaĵo de la dekmil soldatoj alvenis sur monton, kaj ekvidis la maron. Laŭta ekkriego "La maro! La maro!" eksonis inter la lacaj viroj, el kiuj multaj ploris larmojn de ĝojo. De infaneco ili alkutimis al la vojaĝado per akvo, kaj post iom da ripozo ili sin provizis je ŝipoj, por transiri la maron al la patrujo je kiu ili estis tiel longe sopirintaj. Treege interesa historio koncerne la tutan aferon estas verkita de fama greka verkisto (writer), kiu estis akompaninta Ciruson por ke li povu ĝui kaj studi ĉion interesan sur la vojo. Tiu azia militado de Ciruso nepre estas unu el la plej rimarkindaj okazintaĵoj iam priskribitaj, eĉ sen escepto de la posta irado tien de Aleksandro Granda.

The Greek soldiers felt a great terror when Cyrus was no longer alive. The goal of the long march could not be fulfilled because of the death of their stubborn and courageous leader himself. Although the Greeks were victors, they were completely alone in a foreign land, surrounded by barbarians who, through deceptive offers and false promises of friendly relations, quickly caused the death of the Greek commanders. Stripped of their leaders, the unfortunate men were completely in despair. But a few sub-leaders quickly gathered the soldiers and said, "We will lead you home by the most direct route possible! We will do our utmost to ensure that we all are saved!" With nothing else to do, the difficult and grim journey back for the Greeks began without delay. They crossed scorching plains, climbed and descended steep, snow-covered mountains in the middle of winter, and forded wide rivers without bridges. All around, the treacherous barbarians attacked them, as if to ensure that no Greek would remain alive. Besides that, the Greeks died in groups of ten and twenty every day from heat, cold, exhaustion, and hunger. Finally, after incredible suffering, the remainder of the ten thousand soldiers arrived at a mountain and caught sight of the sea. A loud cry of "The sea! The sea!" rang out among the weary men, many of whom wept tears of joy. Since childhood, they had become accustomed to traveling by water, and after a short rest, they equipped themselves with ships to cross the sea back to the homeland they had longed for. A very interesting account of the entire affair is written by a famous Greek writer who accompanied Cyrus so he could enjoy and study everything interesting along the way. This Asian campaign of Cyrus is undoubtedly one of the most remarkable events ever described, even without excluding Alexander the Great's subsequent journey there.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. After the death of Cyrus, the leaders of the Greek warriors did not know what to do. 2. In the course of the following day, one of the leaders of the enemy sent a messenger (205) with deceitful promises about help. 2. He said "Assemble in our leader's tent, in order that you may all discuss the matter." 3. The Greek leaders went, although they suspected danger, because they did not know how else to save their men. 4. But they never returned, and soon the Greeks understood that the barbarians had killed them. 5. They wept tears of despair, and said "The barbarians will inevitably destroy us, for we are in a foreign land, where we know neither the languages nor the roads, and the peoples are without exception hostile to us." 6. But the leaders-of-lesser-rank said "Obey us and follow us, and we shall do our best to save you!" 7. Their return, across hot plains and snow-covered mountains, made-more-difficult by hunger and by the unceasing attacks of the barbarians, is related in the history written by a famous Greek historian. 8. One can still read this interesting narrative, in Greek or in a translation.

1. After Cyrus died, the Greek leaders were at a loss about what to do. 2. The next day, one of the enemy leaders sent a messenger (205) with misleading promises of help. 3. He said, "Gather in our leader's tent so you can all discuss this matter." 4. The Greek leaders went, even though they suspected it was a trap, because they didn’t know how else to protect their men. 5. But they never came back, and soon the Greeks realized the barbarians had killed them. 6. They cried tears of despair, saying, "The barbarians will surely destroy us, for we are in a foreign land where we don’t understand the languages or the roads, and everyone here is against us." 7. However, the lower-ranking leaders said, "Follow us and we will do everything we can to save you!" 8. Their journey back, through scorching plains and snowy mountains, was made even harder by hunger and constant attacks from the barbarians, as described in the history written by a well-known Greek historian. 9. This intriguing story can still be read today, in Greek or in translation.

LESSON LVIII.
PERMISSION AND POSSIBILITY.

269. Permission is usually expressed by the use of permesi, lasi, or the imperative mood:

269. Permission is usually indicated by the use of permesi, lasi, or the imperative mood:

Ĉu vi permesas ke mi restu? May I (do you permit me to) stay?
Jes, mi permesas (jes, restu), yes, you may (yes, stay).
Ne estas permesate eniri tien, it is not allowed to enter there.
Lasu lin veni, let him come.

Can I stay? May I (do you permit me to) stay?
Yes, you can stay, yes, stay.
You aren't allowed to go in there, it is not allowed to enter there.
Let him come, let him come.

270. The idea of possibility or probability is given by the use of some such adverb as eble, kredeble, verŝajne, etc.:

270. The idea of possibility or probability is conveyed using adverbs like able, credible, likely, etc.:

Eble li obeos al vi, he may (perhaps he will) obey you.
Kredeble li sukcesos, probably he will succeed.
Verŝajne vi estas prava, you are probably right.
Eble oni lin savus, they might (possibly they would) save him.
Ili nepre ne batis lin, they could not have (surely did not) beat him.
Tio estas neebla! That can not be (that is impossible)!

He might obey you, he may (maybe he will) listen to you.
He'll probably succeed, he probably will succeed.
You’re likely right, you are probably right.
They might save him, they could (possibly they would) rescue him.
They surely didn’t beat him, they couldn't have (definitely did not) hit him.
That’s impossible! That can't be (that is impossible)!

THE PREFIX GE-.

271. Words formed with the prefix ge- indicate the two sexes together:

271. Words that start with the prefix ge- refer to both sexes together:

gepatroj, parents.
geavoj, grandparents.
genepoj, grandchildren.
gefiloj, son(s) and daughter(s).
gefratoj, brother(s) and sister(s).
geedzoj, husband(s) and wife (wives).
gesinjoroj, Mr. and Mrs., lady (ladies) and gentleman (gentlemen).
THE SUFFIX -AĈ-.

272. The suffix -aĉ- has a disparaging significance:

The suffix -aĉ- has a negative meaning:

domaĉo, a hovel.
hundaĉo, a cur.
obstinaĉa, obstinate.
pentraĉi, to daub.
popolaĉo, rabble, mob.
ridaĉi, to guffaw.
INTERJECTIONS.

273. Interjections are words used to express feeling or call attention. Among the more common interjections are:

273. Interjections are words used to express feelings or grab attention. Some of the more common interjections include:

Adiaŭ! Farewell! (171).
Fi! Fie!
Ho! Oh! Ho!
Hura! Hurrah!
Nu! Well!
Ve! Woe! (Ho ve! Alas!).

Verbs in the imperative, and adverbs, are frequently used as interjections, as Atentu! Look out! Aŭskultu! Hark! Bonvenu! Welcome! Antaŭen! Forward! Bone! Good! For! Away! Ja! Indeed! Jen! There! Behold!

Verbs in the imperative and adverbs are often used as interjections, like Atentu! Look out! Aŭskultu! Hark! Bonvenu! Welcome! Antaŭen! Forward! Bone! Good! For! Away! Ja! Indeed! Jen! There! Behold!

The interjection fi is sometimes used as a disparaging prefix, like -aĉ- (272), as fibirdo, ugly bird, fiĉevalo, a sorry nag.

The interjection fi is sometimes used as a negative prefix, like -aĉ- (272), as in fibirdo, ugly bird, fiĉevalo, a sorry nag.

Vocabulary.
Aleksandri-o, Alexandria.
Amerik-o, America.
Aristotel-o, Aristotle.
Aŭstrali-o, Australia.
bibliotek-o, library.
eduk-i, to bring up, educate.
Egipt-o, Egypt.
estim-i, to esteem.
firm-a, firm.
fond-i, to found, establish.
hispan-o, Spaniard.
kapabl-a, capable.
komun-a, common, mutual.
kontinent-o, continent.
Krist-o, Christ.
milion-o, million.
spite, in spite of.
vast-a, vast, extensive.
ALEKSANDRO GRANDA.

Permesu ke mi diru kelkajn vortojn pri la vivo de Aleksandro Granda, kiu ne estis matura viro sed havis nur dudek jarojn kiam li fariĝis reĝo. Liaj gepatroj estis tre zorge edukintaj lin, kaj la filozofo Aristotelo, kiun li tre alte estimis, estis unu el liaj instruistoj. Aleksandro firme tenadis sian propran reĝolandon, kaj ankaŭ Grekujon, kiun lia patro estis venkinta; krom tio, li faris militadojn kontraŭ diversaj fremdaj landoj, unue en Azio, tiam en Afriko, kie li fondis urbon, kaj ĝin nomis Aleksandrio. Aleksandrio nepre estis belega riĉa urbo. Tie troviĝis poste la fama Aleksandria biblioteko. Se ĝi ne estus detruita de fajro, en la daŭro de iuj militadoj, ni sendube konus multe pli bone la sciadon de la antikvaj grekoj, kiuj verŝajne estis la plej klera popolo iam vivinta en Eŭropo. Venkinte Egipton, Aleksandro reiris en Azion, ĝis tre orienta kaj suda partoj, venkante ĉiujn ĉie, kvazaŭ ili estus la plej malkuraĝaj popolaĉoj en la mondo. Sed spite ĉies petoj li estis obstinaĉe nezorgema pri sia sano, kaj subite, ho ve, li mortis pro febro, tricent dektri jarojn antaŭ Kristo. Se li ne estus tiel frue mortinta, kiel multe li estus eble elfarinta! Li esperis venki Hispanujon, Italujon, kaj, mallongavorte, tiom de la okcidenta mondo kiom li jam posedis de la orienta. Tiam li celis kunigi ĉion en unu vastan imperion, kvazaŭ por fari el la mondo unu grandan familion. Li intencis ke la milionoj da enloĝantoj akceptu komunajn leĝojn kaj kutimojn, eĉ komunan lingvon, — kredeble la grekan. Eble li ja havis la kapablecon por fari ĉion ĉi. Estas pro tio ke oni ofte aŭdas la diron "Aleksandro sopiris je aliaj mondoj por venki." Tamen, kiel malgranda estis tiu mondo kiun li konis! La tiamuloj konis nur malgrandan parton de Afriko, de Azio, eĉ de Eŭropo. Ili sciis nenion pri Anglujo, aŭ pri la vastaj kontinentoj Aŭstralio, norda kaj suda Amerikoj.

Allow me to say a few words about the life of Alexander the Great, who was not a mature man but was only twenty years old when he became king. His parents raised him very carefully, and the philosopher Aristotle, whom he deeply respected, was one of his teachers. Alexander firmly held onto his own kingdom and also Greece, which his father had conquered; besides that, he waged wars against various foreign lands, first in Asia, then in Africa, where he founded a city and named it Alexandria. Alexandria was certainly a beautiful, rich city. There was later the famous Library of Alexandria. If it hadn't been destroyed by fire during some wars, we would undoubtedly know much more about the knowledge of the ancient Greeks, who were probably the most educated people to ever live in Europe. After conquering Egypt, Alexander returned to Asia, going to the far eastern and southern parts, defeating everyone everywhere, as if they were the most cowardly folks in the world. But despite everyone's pleas, he stubbornly neglected his health, and suddenly, alas, he died of fever, three hundred and thirteen years before Christ. If he hadn’t died so young, how much he might have achieved! He hoped to conquer Spain, Italy, and, in short, as much of the Western world as he already possessed of the Eastern. Then he aimed to unite everything into one vast empire, as if to make the world one big family. He intended for the millions of inhabitants to accept common laws and customs, even a common language—probably Greek. Perhaps he really had the capability to accomplish all this. That is why we often hear the saying "Alexander longed for other worlds to conquer." Yet, how small was that world he knew! People of that time knew only a small part of Africa, Asia, and even Europe. They knew nothing about England or the vast continents of Australia, North, and South America.

The use of troviĝi, and also of sin trovi, kuŝi, stari and sidi, in a sense not greatly differing from that of esti, avoids the monotonous repetition of forms of esti, just as English uses lie, sit, perch, etc., in narration for similar reasons:

The use of troviĝi, as well as sin trovi, kuŝi, stari, and sidi, in a way that isn't much different from esti, helps avoid the boring repetition of forms of esti, just like English uses lie, sit, perch, and so on in storytelling for similar reasons:

Multaj vilaĝoj troviĝas tie, many villages are (situated) there.
Egipto troviĝas en la nordorienta parto de Afriko, Egypt is (found) in the northeastern part of Africa.
Li sin trovis sola en la dezerto, he found himself (he was) alone in the desert.
La urbo kuŝis inter du lagoj, the city lay between two lakes.
Sur la montflanko sidis vilaĝeto, on the mountainside perched a tiny village.

Many villages are located there, many villages are (situated) there.
Egypt is in the northeastern part of Africa, Egypt is (found) in the northeastern part of Africa.
He found himself alone in the desert, he found himself (he was) alone in the desert.
The city was between two lakes, the city lay between two lakes.
A small village was perched on the mountainside, on the mountainside perched a tiny village.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Alexander the Great wished to unite the whole world into one vast empire. 2. He intended that all the different peoples should conform to common laws and that their sons-and-daughters should speak one common language, and in spite of their love for their national languages, should leave-off speaking them. 3. Possibly he might have accomplished his object to some extent (217), if he had not died suddenly when he was only thirty-two years old. 4. His soldiers marched weeping past his tent, to bid farewell to their dying leader. 5. They must have esteemed him very highly! 6. It was Alexander who founded the city of Alexandria, in Egypt, where approximately three hundred years before Christ the famous Alexandrian library was located. 7. It contained an enormous collection-of-books — almost seven hundred thousand. 8. Alas, this extensive library was destroyed by fire! 9. Alexander, who "sighed for other worlds to conquer," did not even know of the existence of North and South America, Australia, or even of England and Northern Europe. 10. Beside his Asiatic empire, he knew very little of Asia, even of China, with its millions of inhabitants. 11. How small the world was in those days!

1. Alexander the Great wanted to unite the entire world into one massive empire. 2. He envisioned that all the different peoples would follow common laws and that their sons and daughters would speak a single universal language, even though they loved their native languages and would have to stop using them. 3. He might have achieved his goal to some degree (217) if he hadn't died unexpectedly at just thirty-two years old. 4. His soldiers marched past his tent in tears to say goodbye to their dying leader. 5. They must have held him in very high regard! 6. It was Alexander who founded the city of Alexandria in Egypt, where, around three hundred years before Christ, the famous Alexandrian library was located. 7. It housed an enormous collection of books—almost seven hundred thousand. 8. Unfortunately, this vast library was destroyed by fire! 9. Alexander, who "sighed for other worlds to conquer," didn't even know about the existence of North and South America, Australia, or even England and Northern Europe. 10. Besides his Asian empire, he knew very little about Asia, even about China, with its millions of inhabitants. 11. How small the world was back then!

LESSON LIX.
THE POSITION OF UNEMPHATIC PRONOUNS.

274. An unemphatic personal, indefinite or demonstrative pronoun very frequently precedes the verb of which it is the object. This is especially true if the verb in question is an infinitive:

274. A subtle personal, indefinite, or demonstrative pronoun often comes before the verb that it serves as the object for. This is especially common when the verb in question is an infinitive:

Mi volas lin vidi, I wish to see him.
Li povos tion fari, he will be able to do that.
Vi devus ion manĝi, you ought to eat something.
Ĉu vi ĝin kredis? Did you believe it?
Se li min vidus, li min savus, if he should see me, he would save me.

I want to see him, I wish to see him.
He can do that, he will be able to do that.
You should eat something, you ought to eat something.
Did you believe it? Did you believe it?
If he saw me, he would save me, if he should see me, he would save me.

Cf. in other languages, as in German ich möchte ihn sehen, French je veux le voir, Latin se alunt, me defendi, etc. That such pronouns are unemphatic can be seen from English let her come (= let'er come), make him stop (= make'im stop), etc., in which the unemphatic forms er, im, replace him, her, in pronunciation (cf. the Greek enclitic pronouns μοϋ, μοί, μέ, σον, σοι, σέ, οϋ, οι, έ, the Sanskrit enclitic forms mā, me, tvā, te, nas, vas, enam, enat, enām, also sīm, and the Avestan ī, īm). The same phenomenon is indicated in prithee (= pray thee), and in the spellings gimme (= give me), lemme (= let me), in dialect stories.

Cf. in other languages, as in German ich möchte ihn sehen, French je veux le voir, Latin se alunt, me defend, etc. That such pronouns are unemphatic can be seen from English let her come (= let'er come), make him stop (= make'im stop), etc., where the unemphatic forms er, im replace him, her in pronunciation (cf. the Greek enclitic pronouns μοϋ, μοί, μέ, σον, σοι, σέ, οϋ, οι, έ, the Sanskrit enclitic forms mā, me, tvā, te, nas, vas, enam, enat, enām, also sīm, and the Avestan ī, īm). The same phenomenon is indicated in prithee (= pray thee), and in the spellings gimme (= give me), lemme (= let me), in dialect stories.

SOME INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

275. Some intransitive verbs have English meanings which do not differ in form from the transitive English verbs to which they are related. In Esperanto the suffix -ig- (214) must be used when the transitive meaning is desired. Some examples are given in the following table:

275. Some intransitive verbs have English meanings that don't differ in form from the transitive English verbs they are related to. In Esperanto, the suffix -ig- (214) must be used when a transitive meaning is intended. Some examples are provided in the following table:

Verb.Intransitive Use.Transitive Use.
Boli . . .La akvo bolas
The water boils
Li boligas la akvon
He boils the water
Bruli . . .La fajro brulas
The fire burns
Li bruligis la paperon
He burned the paper
Ĉesi . . .La bruo ĉesas
The noise stops
Li ĉesigas la bruon
He stops the noise
Daŭri . . .La bruo daŭras
The noise continues
Li daŭrigas la bruon
He continues the noise
Degeli . . .La glacio degelas
The ice thaws
Li ĝin degeligas per fajro
He thaws it with fire
Droni . . .La knabino dronis
The girl drowned
La viro ŝin dronigis
The man drowned her
Eksplodi . . .Pulvo eksplodas
Gunpowder explodes
Li ĝin eksplodigos
He will explode it
Halti . . .Li haltis timigite
He halted in alarm
Li haltigis la soldatojn
He halted the soldiers
Lumi . . .La suno lumas
The sun shines
Li lumigis la lampon
He lighted the lamp
Pasi . . .La tempo pasas
Time passes
Tiel li pasigis la tagon
Thus he passed the day
Pendi . . .Ĝi pendas de branĉo
It hangs on a branch
Li ĝin pendigis de branĉo
He hung it on a branch
Soni . . .La saluta pafo sonis
The salute sounded
Oni sonigis la salutan pafon
They sounded the salute
Sonori . . .La sonorilo sonoris
The bell rang
Oni sonorigis la sonorilon
They rang the bell

A transitive use of such intransitive verbs would be like using the English intransitive verb "learn" for the transitive verb "teach," as in the "I'll learn you" (for "I'll teach you") of illiterate speech.

A transitive use of intransitive verbs would be like using the English intransitive verb "learn" instead of the transitive verb "teach," as in the phrase "I'll learn you" (meaning "I'll teach you") often used in uneducated speech.

THE SUFFIX -ER-.

276. The suffix -er- is used to form words expressing units or component parts of that which is indicated in the root:

276. The suffix -er- is used to create words that represent units or parts of what is indicated in the root:

fajrero, spark (of fire).
monero, coin.
neĝero, snowflake.
sablero, grain of sand.
THE PREFIXES BO- AND DUON-.

277. The prefix bo- indicates relationship by marriage. To indicate half-blood relationship, or step-relationship, duon- (166) is used:

277. The prefix bo- indicates a relationship through marriage. To show a half-blood relationship or a step-relationship, duon- (166) is used:

bopatro, father-in-law.
bofratino, sister-in-law.
duonpatro, stepfather.
duonfrato, half-brother.
CORRESPONDENCE.

278. a. Letters should be dated as indicated in the following:

278. a. Letters should be dated as shown below:

Bostono, je la 24a de decembro, 1912a.
Nov-Jorko, la 24an decembro, 1912a.
Sirakuzo, 24/XII/1912.

Boston, December 24, 1912.
New York, December 24, 1912.
Siracusa, 24/XII/1912.

b. The usual methods of address are (to strangers and in business letters): Sinjoro, Sinjorino, Estimata Sinjoro, Karaj Sinjoroj, Tre estimata Fraŭlino, etc.; (to friends and relatives) Kara Fraŭlino, Karaj Gefratoj, Kara Amiko, Kara Mario, Patrino mia, (placing the possessive adjective after the noun in this way gives an affectionate sense, as in English "Mother mine," etc) etc.; (to persons whose opinions on some subject are known to agree with those of the writer) Estimata (Kara) Samideano (follower of the same idea).

b. The usual ways to address people are (to strangers and in business letters): Mr., Mrs., Dear Sir, Dear Sirs, Very Esteemed Miss, etc.; (to friends and relatives) Dear Miss, Dear Siblings, Dear Friend, Dear Maria, My Mother, (placing the possessive adjective after the noun gives an affectionate tone, as in English "Mother mine," etc.); (to people whose opinions on a subject are known to align with the writer's) Esteemed (Dear) Comrade (follower of the same idea).

c. Among the more usual forms of conclusion are (to strangers and in business letters): Tre fidele la via, Tre vere, Kun granda estimo, Kun plej alta estimo, etc., (to friends): Kun amika saluto, Kun ĉiuj bondeziroj, Kun samideanaj salutoj, Frate la via, etc.

c. Some common ways to conclude messages are (for strangers and in business letters): Best regards, Sincerely, With great respect, With highest regards, etc., (for friends): With friendly greetings, With all good wishes, With comradely greetings, Yours in solidarity, etc.

Vocabulary.
adres-o, address.
apart-a, separate.
bedaur-i, to regret.
ĉef-a, chief.
do, so, then.
fontan-o, fountain.
hotel-o, hotel.
ink-o, ink.
konven-a, suitable.
kovert-o, envelope (for letters).
krajon-o, pencil.
mend-i, to order (of stores, etc).
Nov-Jorko, New York.
numer-o, number (numeral).
ofic-o, office, employment.
poŝt-o, post (letters, etc.).
respekt-o, respect.
special-a, special.
stat-o, state (political body)
tram-o, tram.

Ĉef- is often used in descriptive compounds (167, b), as ĉefkuiristo, chief (head) cook, chef, ĉefurbo, chief city, capital, ĉefanĝelo, archangel.

ĉef- is often used in descriptive compounds (167, b), as ĉefkuiristo, chief cook, chef, ĉefurbo, capital city, ĉefanĝelo, archangel.


KELKAJ LETEROJ.

Sirakuzo, la 2an de marto, 1911.

Sirakuzo, March 2, 1911.

Kara Amiko,

Kara Amiko,

Sendube vin surprizos ricevi leteron skribitan de mi ĉe hotelo en ĉi tiu urbo, ne tre malproksime de via propra oficejo! Via bofrato, kiun mi okaze renkontis hieraŭ en la poŝtoficejo, donis al mi vian adreson. Ĝis nun, mi estas tiel okupata ke mi ne havis la tempon eĉ por telefoni al vi. Sed nun mi havas du aŭ tri minutojn da libera tempo, kaj mi tuj ekkaptas la okazon por skribi letereton, petante ke vi vespermanĝu kun mi hodiaŭ vespere, ĉe la hotelo kie, kiel vi vidas, mi loĝas de antaŭ unu tago. (Pardonu, mi petas, ke mi finas ĉi tiun leteron per krajono, sed mi ĵus eltrovis ke restas neniom plu da inko en mia fontanplumo.) Venu je la sesa, se tiu horo estas konvena. Bedaŭrinde (unfortunately), mi devos forresti de la hotelo la tutan posttagmezon, pri komercaj aferoj, alie mi vin renkontus ĉe la tramvojo, kie haltas la tramveturiloj (streetcars). Estos plej bone, mi opinias, ke vi iru rekte al mia ĉambro, numero 26, kie mi senprokraste vin renkontos, se mi ne estos efektive jam vin atendanta. Ni esperu ke la ĉefkuiristo preparos al ni bonan manĝon! Mi esperas ke vi malatentos la falantajn neĝerojn, kaj nepre venos, responde al mia iomete subita invito, ĉar ni ja havos multe da komunaj travivaĵoj por priparoli. Do ĝis la baldaŭa revido je la vespermanĝo!

Sendube, you’ll be surprised to receive a letter from me at the hotel in this city, not far from your office! Your brother-in-law, whom I happened to run into at the post office yesterday, gave me your address. Until now, I’ve been so busy that I haven’t had time to even call you. But now, I have two or three minutes of free time, and I’m seizing the chance to write a quick note asking you to have dinner with me tonight at the hotel where, as you can see, I’ve been staying for the past day. (I apologize that I’m finishing this letter with a pencil, but I just discovered I’m out of ink in my fountain pen.) Please come at six, if that works for you. Unfortunately, I’ll have to be away from the hotel all afternoon for business matters; otherwise, I would have met you at the streetcar stop. I think it’s best if you go straight to my room, number 26, where I’ll meet you right away, unless I’m already waiting for you. Let’s hope the head chef prepares us a good meal! I hope you won't mind the falling snow and will definitely come in response to my somewhat sudden invitation because we have so many shared experiences to discuss. So, see you soon at dinner!

Kun plej amikaj salutoj,

Just friendly greetings,

Roberto.

Roberto.

The word tial may be omitted from the combination tial ke (83), if the meaning is obvious.

The word tial can be left out of the phrase tial ke (83) if the meaning is clear.


Boston, 13/VII/1911.

Boston, 07/13/1911.

Wilson kaj Jones,
Nov-Jorko.
Estimataj Sinjoroj:—
Bonvolu sendi al mi per revenanta poŝto vian plej novan prezaron (price-list). Ni baldaŭ bezonos iujn novajn meblojn por niaj oficejoj, precipe skribtablojn, tablojn konvenajn por skribmaŝinoj (typewriters), kaj specialajn librujojn, farotajn laŭ niaj bezonoj. Se viaj prezoj estas konvenaj, ni sendube volos mendi de vi tian meblaron.
Kun respekto,
J. F. Smith,
ĉe Brown kaj Brown.

Nov-Jorko, 17/VII/1911.

New York, July 17, 1911.

Sinjoro J. F. Smith,
ĉe Brown kaj Brown,
Nov-Jorko.
Estimata Sinjoro:—
Ni havas la honoron sendi al vi en aparta koverto nian plej novan prezaron, al kiu ni petas ke vi donu vian atenton, precipe al paĝoj 15-29. Tie vi trovos priskribitaj niajn plej bonajn oficejajn meblarojn. Ni senpage metos ĉiujn aĉetitajn meblojn sur la vagonaron, sed kompreneble ni ne pagos la koston de la sendado.
Ni plezure fabrikos specialajn librujojn laŭ viaj bezonoj, kaj volonte ricevos viajn ordonojn pri tio. Niaj prezoj estos kiel eble plej malaltaj.
Esperante ke la meblaroj priskribitaj en nia prezaro, kune kun la tie-presitaj prezoj, estos plene kontentigaj, kaj certigante al vi ke ni zorge plenumos ĉiun mendon, ni restas,
Tre respekte la viaj,
Wilson kaj Jones.

Bostono, la 27an Majo.

Boston, May 27.

Sinjoro B. F. Brown,
Sirakuzo, Nov-Jorka Ŝtato.
Kara Sinjoro:—
Vian adreson ni dankas al niaj komunaj amikoj Sinjoroj Miller kaj White, kaj per ĉi tio ni permesas al ni proponi al vi niajn servojn por la vendado de tiaj infanludiloj, kiajn vi fabrikas. Ni havas bonegajn montrajn fenestrojn (show-windows), en nia butiko, preskaŭ meze de la ĉefstrato en la urbo, kaj en nia butiko troviĝas sufiĉe da grandaj vitramebloj (show-cases). Tial ni povus tre oportune administri tian aferon. Ni multe ĝojos se vi respondos kiel eble plej baldaŭ, sciigante al ni kiom da procento vi donos, kaj kiajn aranĝojn vi volus fari. Ni certigas al vi ke en ĉiu okazo ni penos fari nian eblon por via plej bona intereso.
Kun alta estimo,
D. Rose.
LESSON LX.
SOME TRANSITIVE VERBS.

279. Some transitive verbs have English meanings which do not differ in form from the intransitive English verbs to which they are related (conversely to the use explained in 275). In Esperanto the suffix -iĝ- (232), or a different root, must be used when an intransitive meaning is desired. Following are the more common verbs of this character, together with examples of the intransitive use of several of them:

279. Some transitive verbs have English meanings that are the same in form as the intransitive English verbs they are related to (as opposed to the usage explained in 275). In Esperanto, the suffix -iĝ- (232), or a different root, has to be used when an intransitive meaning is intended. Below are the more common verbs of this kind, along with examples of the intransitive use of several of them:

balanci, to balance.
etendi, to extend, to expand.
fermi, to close, to shut.
fini, to end, to finish.
fleksi, to bend, to flex.
hejti, to heat.
klini, to incline, to bend.
kolekti, to gather, to collect.
komenci, to begin, to commence.
mezuri, to measure.
montri, to show.
movi, to move.
paŝti, to pasture, to feed.
renversi, to upset, to overturn.
rompi, to break.
ruli, to roll, (a wheel, ball, etc.).
skui, to shake.
streĉi, to stretch.
svingi, to swing.
ŝanceli, to cause to vacillate.
ŝanĝi, to change.
ŝiri, to tear.
turni, to turn.
veki, to wake.
verŝi, to pour.
volvi, to roll (around something).

La laboro nun finiĝas, the work is now coming to an end.
La glavo fleksiĝis, the sword bent.
La folioj disvolviĝas, the leaves unroll (develop).
Ĉiu kutimo ŝanĝiĝos, every custom will change.
La vintro jam komenciĝas, the winter is already beginning.
Mi vekiĝos je la sesa, I shall awake at six (o'clock).
La montrilo ŝanceliĝis, the indicator trembled (vacillated).
Vasta ebenaĵo etendiĝis antaŭ li, a vast plain extended before him.

The work is now coming to an end.
The sword bent.
The leaves unroll (develop).
Every custom will change.
Winter is already beginning.
I will wake up at six (o'clock).
The indicator trembled (vacillated).
A vast plain extended before him.

ELISION.

280. Elision is not common, and its use in writing as well as in speaking is best avoided. It occurs most frequently in poetry.

280. Elision isn't common, and it's best to avoid using it in both writing and speaking. It happens most often in poetry.

a. The -a of the article may be elided before a word beginning with a vowel, or after a preposition ending in a vowel:

a. The -a of the article can be dropped before a word starting with a vowel or after a preposition that ends with a vowel:

"L' espero, l' obstino kaj la pacienco."
"De l' montoj riveretoj fluas."
"Kaj kantas tra l' pura aero."

"Hope, stubbornness, and patience."
"From the mountains, streams flow."
"And sing through the pure air."

b. The final -o of a noun may be elided in poetry. The original accent of the noun remains unchanged:

b. The final -o of a noun can be dropped in poetry. The original emphasis of the noun stays the same:

"Ho, mia kor', ne batu maltrankvile."
"Sur la kampo la rozet'."

"Hey, my friend, don't worry."
"On the field, the rose blooms."

c. The final -e of an adverb is very rarely elided (except in the expression dank' al, which occurs in prose as well as in poetry):

c. The final -e of an adverb is very rarely dropped (except in the phrase dank' al, which appears in both prose and poetry):

"Ke povu mi foj' je eterno ekdormi!"
Dank' al vi, mi sukcesis, thanks to you, I succeeded.

"What a way to keep me in eternal slumber!"
Thanks to you, I succeeded, thanks to you, I succeeded.

THE PREFIX EKS-.

281. The prefix eks- is used to form words expressing a previous incumbent of a position, or removal from such position:

281. The prefix eks- is used to create words that refer to someone who previously held a position or indicates removal from that position:

eksprezidanto, ex-president.
eksreĝo, ex-king.
eksigi, to put out of office, to discharge.
eksiĝi, to withdraw from one's office, to resign.

ex-president, former president.
ex-king, former king.
to discharge, to remove from office, to release.
to resign, to step down from one's position.

THE PREFIX PRA-.

282. The prefix pra- is used to form words expressing precedence in the line of descent, or general remoteness in past time:

282. The prefix pra- is used to create words that indicate precedence in lineage or general distance in the past:

praavo, great grandfather.
pranepo, great grandson.
prapatroj, forefathers, ancestors.
pratempa, primeval.
THE SUFFIXES -ĈJ- AND -NJ-.

283. The suffix -ĉj- is used to form affectionate diminutives, from the first syllable or syllables of masculine names or terms of address. The suffix -nj- forms similar feminine diminutives:

283. The suffix -ĉj- is used to create cute, smaller versions of masculine names or terms of address, starting from the first syllable or syllables. The suffix -nj- creates similar feminine diminutives:

Joĉjo, Johnnie, Joe.
Paĉjo, Papa.
Manjo, May, Mamie.
Panjo, Mamma.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
284.
National systems of weights and measures translated into international form (as
mejlo
,
mile
,
funto
,
pound
) cannot convey a very definite meaning to one not familiar with the particular system used. Consequently the metric system (already used by scientists everywhere and by the general public in many countries) is adopted for the international system of weights and measures:
Length and Surface.
milimetro, millimeter (.0394 inch).
centimetro, centimeter (.3937 inch).
decimetro, decimeter (3.937 inches).
metro, meter (39.37 inches).
dekametro, dekameter (393.7 inches).
hektometro, hektometer (328 feet 1 inch).
kilometro, kilometer (3280 feet 10 inches; .62137 mile).
kvadrata metro, square meter (1550 square inches).
hektaro, hektare (2.471 acres).
Weight.
gramo, gram (15.432 grains avoirdupois).
dekagramo, dekagram (.3527 ounce avoirdupois).
hektogramo, hektogram (3.5274 ounce avoirdupois).
kilogramo, kilogram (2.2046 pounds avoirdupois).
Capacity.
decilitro, deciliter (6.1022 cubic inches; .845 gill).
litro, liter (.908 quart, dry measure; 1.0567 quart, liquid).
dekalitro, dekaliter (9.08 quart, dry measure; 2.6417 gallons).
hektolitro, hektoliter (2 bushels 3.35 pecks; 26.417 gallons).
kilolitro, kiloliter (1.308 cubic yards; 264.17 gallons).
THE INTERNATIONAL MONEY SYSTEM.

285. Names of national coins translated into international form (as dolaro, dollar, cendo, cent) cannot convey a very definite meaning to persons not familiar with these coins. Consequently the system devised for international use (not for actual coins, but for calculation and price quotations) is based upon a unit called the speso. The multiples of this unit are the spesdeko (10 spesoj), spescento (100 spesoj), and spesmilo (1000 spesoj). Ten spesmiloj have approximately the value of a five-dollar gold piece, twenty marks, twenty-five francs, one pound sterling, etc. The spesmilo, equivalent to about $0.4875 in the money of the United States and Canada, is the unit commonly used. (To reduce dollars to spesmiloj, multiply by 2.051.)

285. Names of national coins translated into international terms (like dolaro, dollar, cendo, cent) don't really convey a clear meaning to people who aren't familiar with these coins. Because of this, the system created for international use (not for actual coins, but for calculations and price quotes) is based on a unit called the speso. The multiples of this unit are the spesdeko (10 spesoj), spescento (100 spesoj), and spesmilo (1000 spesoj). Ten spesmiloj are roughly equal to a five-dollar gold piece, twenty marks, twenty-five francs, one pound sterling, etc. The spesmilo, which is about $0.4875 in U.S. and Canadian currency, is the unit most commonly used. (To convert dollars to spesmiloj, multiply by 2.051.)

ABBREVIATIONS.

286. The following abbreviations are often used (for those of the metric system see any English dictionary):

286. The following abbreviations are commonly used (for the metric system, refer to any English dictionary):

Dro., Doktoro, Dr.
Fino., Fraŭlino, Miss.
Pro., Profesoro, Prof.
Sro., Sinjoro, Mr.
Sino., Sinjorino, Mrs.
Ko., K-io., Kompanio, Co.
No., N-ro., Numero, No.
&, kaj, &.
Sm., spesmilo(j).
Sd., spesdeko(j).
k. t. p., kaj tiel plu, and so forth.
k. c., kaj ceteraj, etc.
k. sim., kaj simila(j), et. sim.
t. e., tio estas, i.e.
e., ekzemple, e.g.
p.s., postskribaĵo, P.S.
Vocabulary.
abon-i, to subscribe to, take.
aparat-o, apparatus.
aŭtomat-a, automatic.
bov-o, ox.
dimensi-o, dimension.
ekzempl-o, example.
fokus-o, focus.
fotograf-i, to photograph.
funkci-i, to function, work.
kamer-o, camera.
led-o, leather.
metal-o, metal.
moment-o, moment.
negativ-o, negative.
objektiv-o, lens, objective.
original-o, original.
plat-o, plate (photographic, etc)
prov-i, to try.
reklam-i, to advertise.
streĉ-i, to stretch (trans.).

Cf. the difference between provi, to try in the sense of testing, making an essay or endeavor, peni, to try in the sense of taking pains or making an effort, and juĝi, to try in a judicial sense.

See the difference between provi, to try in the sense of testing, making an attempt or effort, peni, to try in the sense of putting in effort or striving, and juĝi, to try in a legal context.


PRI LA KAMERO.

Bostono, 12/XI/1910.

Boston, 12/11/1910.

Brown kaj Ko.,
Nov-Jorko.
Sinjoroj:—
Vidinte vian reklamon en gazeto al kiu mi abonas, mi skribas por peti ke vi sendu al mi priskribaĵon de via kamero nomita "La Infaneto," kiun eble mi deziros provi.
Bonvolu ankaŭ sendi dekduonon da platoj, 6 x 9 centimetrojn, por kiu mi ĉi kune sendas spesmilon kaj duonon.
Kun respekto,
J. C. Smith.

The particle ĉi (used with tiu, tio, ties, ĉiu, ĉio) may also be used with certain adverbs, as ĉi sube, here below, ĉi supre, here above, ĉi kune, herewith, etc.

The particle ĉi (used with tiu, tio, ties, ĉiu, ĉio) can also be used with some adverbs, like ĉi sube, here below, ĉi supre, here above, ĉi kune, herewith, and so on.


Nov-Jorko, 18an novembro, 1910.

New York, November 18, 1910.

Kara Sinjoro:—
Respondante al via estimata letero de la 12a, ni donas ĉi sube mallongan priskribaĵon de nia bonega fotografilo nomita "La Infaneto."
"La Infaneto" kamero havis neesperitan sukceson, kaj estas vendita po miloj da ekzempleroj. Ĉie oni unuvoĉe laŭdas ĝian malgrandan kaj tamen bonegan konstruon, kaj ankaŭ ĝian firman samtempe facilan funkciadon. Ĝi ne estas pli granda ol monujo, tial ĝi ne bezonas pli multe da spaco ol tiu, kaj povas esti portata kaj uzata treege konvene.
La dimensioj de la fermita kamero estas 8 x 5 x 6.5 centimetroj. La pezo, kun objektivo, tri platingoj, kaj malbrila (ground) vitro, estas 365 gramoj. "La Infaneto" estas konstruita tute el metalo, kaj kovrita de bonega bovledo. Kiam oni malfermas la aparaton, la objektivo samtempe enfokusiĝas, tiamaniere ke la kamero estas preta por uzado post unu sekundo, ĉar la objektivfermilo (shutter) estas ĉiam streĉita. Sekve: neniaj preparadoj, nenia prokrasto je la ekfotografado.
La negativoj estas klaraj ĝis la bordo, kaj tial konvenaj por pligrandigo. Cetere, oni scias ke bona pligrandigo ofte pli kontentigas ol malgranda originalo. Precipe ĉe promenoj kaj vojaĝoj oni tial volonte preferas la malgrandan "Infaneton," por poste pligrandigi la negativojn.
Por la pligrandigo ni fabrikas specialajn taglum-pligrandigajn aparatojn, kies prezoj estas malaltaj (vidu en nia prezaro).
Ni ne ŝanĝis la konstruon de "La Infaneto" de post 1909, ĉar ĝis nun ĝi estas ĉiurilate kontentiga. Sole la rapideca reguligo de la momenta (instantaneous) fermilo estas plibonigita, ĉar ni ĝin fabrikas kun speciala aŭtomata fermilo, kiu estas aranĝita por malfermoj daŭraj (time exposures), kaj momentaj, je unu sekundo ĝis unu centono da sekundo.
Esperante ke ni baldaŭ ricevos mendon de vi, kaj certigante al vi ke ni tre zorge plenumos iun ajn mendon, ni restas.
Tre respekte la viaj,
Brown & Ko.
Per C.

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

The following vocabulary includes all roots used in the preceding Lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number of additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt has been made, however, to include all of the roots in the language, for which an Esperanto-English Dictionary should be consulted.

The vocabulary below contains all the roots used in the previous Lessons, all the main words of the language, and many extra roots (to help with original writing). However, not all the roots in the language are included, so you should refer to an Esperanto-English Dictionary for that.

References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. For other parts of speech than those indicated under each root or primary word, see Word Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171. See also the references given under each prefix and suffix. For formation of compound words, see 160, 167, 176, 184. The following abbreviations are used: adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive; — = repetition of the word.

References are to sections unless a page (p.) is mentioned. For other parts of speech that aren't listed under each root or main word, check Word Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171. Also, refer to the references under each prefix and suffix. For forming compound words, see 160, 167, 176, 184. The following abbreviations are used: adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive; — = repetition of the word.

A.

A.

abel-o
, bee.

abi-o
, fir.

abiturient-o
, bachelor of arts (A.B.).

abomen-a
, abominable.

abon-i
, to subscribe to, take (magazine, etc.).

abrikot-o
, apricot.

acer-o
, maple (tree).

acid-a
, acid, sour.

-aĉ-
,
derogatory suffix
(
272
).

aĉet-i
, to buy.

-ad-
,
suffix indicating duration
(
218
).

adiaŭ
, (
adv. and interjection
), farewell, good-bye (
171
,
273
).

adjektiv-o
, adjective.

administr-i
, to administer, to manage.

admir-i
, to admire.

admon-i
, to exhort, admonish.

ador-i
, to worship, adore.

adres-o
, address (on letters, etc.).

adverb-o
, adverb.

advokat-o
, lawyer, barrister.

aer-o
, air.

afabl-a
, affable, amiable.

afer-o
, affair, matter, thing, cause.

afiŝ-o
, handbill, placard, poster.

afrank-i
, to frank (letters), prepay;
—ite
, post-paid.

Afrik-o
, Africa.

ag-i
, to act, perform action.

agac-i
, to set on edge (of teeth).

agent-o
, agent.

agit-i
, to agitate.

agl-o
, eagle.

agoni-o
, agony.

agrabl-a
, agreeable, pleasant.

aĝ-o
, age.

ajn
(
adv.
), ever (
236
).

-aĵ-
,
suffix forming concrete words
(
227
).

akademi-o
, academy.

akcel-i
(
trans.
), to accelerate, hasten.

akcent-o
, accent, stress.

akcept-i
, to accept, receive, welcome.

akcident-o
, accident.

akir-i
, to acquire.

akompan-i
, to accompany.

akr-a
, sharp, acute, shrill.

akrid-o
, grasshopper.

aks-o
, axis, axle.

akt-o
, act (of a play).

aktiv-a
, active (grammatical).

aktor-o
, actor (player).

akurat-a
, accurate, exact.

akuz-i
, to accuse.

akuzativ-o
, accusative.

akv-o
, water.

akvarel-o
, water-color painting.

akvari-o
, aquarium.

al
(
prep.
), to, toward (
46, 160, 251, 252
).

alaŭd-o
, lark (bird).

ale-o
, avenue, walk, path (of garden, park, etc.).

Aleksandri-o
, Alexandria.

Aleksandr-o
, Alexander.

alfabet-o
, alphabet.

Alfred-o
, Alfred.

algebr-o
, algebra.

ali-a
, other.

alk-o
, elk.

alkohol-o
, alcohol.

alkov-o
, alcove, recess.

almanak-o
, almanac.

almenaŭ
, (
adv.
), at least (
66
).

almoz-o
, alms;
—ulo
, beggar.

alt-a
, high, tall.

altar-o
, altar.

alud-i
, to allude to.

alumet-o
, match (for fire).

am-i
, to love.

amas-o
, crowd, throng, mass.

ambaŭ
(
pronoun
), both (of two objects naturally in pairs, or of persons or things assumed or already known to be thus grouped) (
238
).

ambos-o
, anvil.

amel-o
, starch.

Amerik-o
, America.

amfibi-a
, amphibious.

amfiteatr-o
, amphitheatre.

amik-o
, friend.

amindum-i
, to woo, make love.

ampleks-o
, extent, dimension.

amuz-i
, to amuse.

-an-
,
suffix denoting membership, etc.
(
145
).

analiz-i
, to analyse.

ananas-o
, pineapple.

anas-o
, duck.

anekdot-o
, anecdote.

Angl-o
, Englishman.

angul-o
, angle, corner.

anĝel-o
, angel.

anim-o
, soul.

ankaŭ
(
adv.
), also.

ankoraŭ
(
adv
), still, yet.

ankr-o
, anchor.

anonc-i
, to announce.

ans-o
, latch, door-handle.

anser-o
, goose.

anstataŭ
(
prep.
), instead of (
98, 159
).

antaŭ
(
prep.
), before (
89, 90, 120, 159, 160
),
antaŭ ol
(
conj.
),
97, 98
.

antikv-a
, ancient, antique.

antilop-o
, antelope.

antipati-o
, antipathy.

aparat-o
, apparatus.

apart-a
, separate.

apartament-o
, apartment, suite (of rooms).

aparten-i
, to belong.

apati-o
, apathy.

apenaŭ
(
adv.
), scarcely, hardly.

aper-i
, to appear.

apetit-o
, appetite.

aplaŭd-i
, to applaud.

aplomb-o
, assurance, self-command.

apog-i
, to lean, to rest (upon).

apologi-o
, apology, vindication.

apotek-o
, pharmacy, drugstore, chemist's shop.

april-o
, April.

aprob-i
, to approve.

apud
(
prep.
), near to, close by (
120, 159
).

-ar-
,
suffix forming collectives
(
126
).

Arab-o
, Arab.

arane-o
, spider.

aranĝ-i
, to arrange.

arb-o
, tree.

arbitraci-i
, to arbitrate.

ardez-o
, slate (stone).

aren-o
, arena.

arest-i
, to arrest.

argil-o
, clay.

argument-i
, to argue.

arĝent-o
, silver (metal).

arĥitektur-o
, architecture.

Arĥimed-o
, Archimedes.

ari-o
, tune, air (music).

Aristejd-o
, Aristeides.

aristokrat-o
, aristocrat.

Aristotel-o
, Aristotle.

aritmetik-o
, arithmetic.

ark-o
, arc.

arkad-o
, arcade.

arm-i
, to arm.

arme-o
, army.

armoraci-o
, horse-radish.

arogant-a
, arrogant.

arom-o
, aroma, fragrance.

art-o
, art.

artik-o
, joint.

artikol-o
, article (grammatical or literary).

Artur-o
, Arthur.

asekur-i
, to insure (with a company).

asoci-o
, association (organization).

asparag-o
, asparagus.

aspekt-o
, aspect, appearance.

astr-o
, heavenly body, star.

atak-i
, to attack.

atend-i
, to wait, wait for, expect.

atent-a
, attentive.

atest-i
, to attest, give witness, certify.

ating-i
, to attain, reach.

atlas-o
, satin.

atlet-o
, athlete.

atmosfer-o
, atmosphere.

atribut-o
, attribute.

(
conj.
), or, either.

aŭd-i
, to hear.

aŭgust-o
, August.

aŭskult-i
, to listen.

Aŭstrali-o
, Australia.

aŭtomat-a
, automatic.

aŭtor-o
, author.

aŭtun-o
, autumn.

av-o
, grandfather.

avar-a
, avaricious, miserly.

avel-o
, hazel-nut.

aven-o
, oats.

avert-i
, to warn, caution.

avid-a
, eager.

aviz-i
, to give notice.

azen-o
, ass, donkey.

Azi-o
, Asia.

azot-o
, nitrogen.

B.

B.

babil-i
, to chatter, babble.

bagatel-o
, trifle, bagatelle.

bal-o
, ball (dance).

bak-i
, to bake.

bala-i
, to sweep (a floor, etc.).

balanc-i
(
trans.
), to balance, poise;
—i la kapon
, to nod the head.

baldaŭ
(
adv.
), soon.

balen-o
, whale.

ban-i
(
trans.
), to bathe.

banan-o
, banana.

bandaĝ-i
, to bandage.

bank-o
, bank (financial).

bankrot-i
, to become bankrupt, fail.

bant-o
, bow (of ribbon).

bar-i
(
trans.
), to bar, to obstruct.

barakt-i
, to wrestle, struggle.

barb-o
, beard.

barbar-o
, barbarian.

barel-o
, barrel.

bariton-o
, barytone.

bas-o
, bass (voice).

baston-o
, stick.

bat-i
, to beat.

batal-i
, to fight, battle.

batat-o
, sweet potato.

bedaŭr-i
, to regret.

bek-o
, beak, bill.

bel-a
, beautiful, handsome.

belg-o
, Belgian.

ben-i
, to bless.

benk-o
, bench.

ber-o
, berry.

best-o
, animal, beast.

bet-o
, beet.

bezon-i
, to need, want.

bibliotek-o
, library.

bicikl-o
, bicycle.

bien-o
, land, property, estate.

bier-o
, beer.

bifstek-o
, beefsteak.

bild-o
, picture, image.

bilet-o
, ticket, note;
bank—
, bank-note, bill.

bird-o
, bird.

bis
(
adv.
), once more, a second time, encore.

biskvit-o
, biscuit.

blank-a
, white.

blek-i
, to neigh, bleat, give its cry (of any animal).

blind-a
, blind.

blov-i
, to blow.

blu-a
, blue (color).

bluz-o
, blouse.

bo-
,
prefix expressing relationship by marriage
(
277
).

boat-o
, boat.

boj-i
, to bark (of dogs).

bol-i
(
intrans.
), to boil.

bombon-o
, bonbon, sweet.

bon-a
, good;
—veni
, to welcome.

bor-i
, to bore (holes).

bord-o
, shore, bank, edge (of rivers, etc.).

Boston-o
, Boston.

bot-o
, boot.

botel-o
, bottle.

bov-o
, ox;
—aĵo
, beef;
—idaĵo
, veal;
—viro
, bull.

brak-o
, arm (of the body).

branĉ-o
, branch, bough.

brand-o
, brandy.

brasik-o
, cabbage;
florbrasiko
, cauliflower.

brav-a
, brave.

bret-o
, shelf, bracket.

brid-o
, bridle (of harness).

brik-o
, brick, tile.

bril-i
, to shine (
116
).

Brit-o
, Briton.

brod-i
, to embroider.

bronz-o
, bronze.

bros-i
, to brush.

broŝur-o
, pamphlet, brochure.

brov-o
, eyebrow.

bru-o
, noise.

brul-i
(
intrans.
), to burn (
275
).

brun-a
, brown.

brut-o
, cattle, dumb animal.

bub-o
, street arab, gamin.

buĉ-i
, to slaughter, butcher.

buf-o
, toad.

buk-o
, buckle (metal).

buked-o
, bouquet.

bukl-o
, curl, ringlet (of hair).

bulb-o
, onion, bulb.

bulgar-o
, Bulgarian.

bulk-o
, roll (bread).

bulvard-o
, boulevard.

burĝon-o
, bud, young shoot.

buŝ-o
, mouth.

buter-o
, butter.

butik-o
, shop, store.

buton-o
, button.

C.

C.

cel-i
, to aim, have as purpose or goal.

celeri-o
, celery.

cend-o
, cent (coin).

cent
, hundred (
142
).

centigram-o
, centigram (
284
).

centilitr-o
, centiliter (
284
).

centimetr-o
, centimeter (
284
).

centr-o
, center.

cerb-o
, brain.

cert-a
, certain, sure.

cerv-o
, stag, deer.

ceter-a
, remaining.

ci
(
pronoun
), thou (
40
).

cidoni-o
, quince.

cifer-o
, cipher.

cigar-o
, cigar.

cigared-o
, cigarette.

cign-o
, swan.

cilindr-o
, cylinder.

cinam-o
, cinnamon.

cindr-o
, ashes.

cir-o
, blacking (for shoes).

cirkonstanc-o
, circumstance.

cirkuler-o
, circular (letter).

Cirus-o
, Cyrus.

cit-i
, to quote.

citron-o
, lemon.

civiliz-i
, to civilize.

col-o
, inch (measure).

Ĉ.

Ĉ.

ĉagren-i
(
trans.
), to grieve, vex, annoy.

ĉambr-o
, room.

ĉap-o
, cap.

ĉapel-o
, hat.

ĉapitr-o
, chapter (of book).

ĉar
(
conj.
), because, since (
83
).

ĉarm-a
, charming, delightful.

ĉarnir-o
, hinge.

ĉas-i
, to hunt (game or wild animals).

ĉe
(
prep.
), at, in the house or presence of (
125, 160
).

ĉef-a
, chief, principal, head.

ĉek-o
, cheque.

ĉemiz-o
, shirt, chemise.

ĉen-o
, chain (for watch, etc.).

ĉeriz-o
, cherry.

ĉes-i
(
intrans.
), to cease, leave off (
275
).

ĉeval-o
, horse;
—viro
, stallion.

ĉi
(
adv.
),
expresses proximity
(
60, 66
).

ĉia
, of every kind (
177
).

ĉial
(
adv.
), for every reason (
188
).

ĉiam
(
adv.
), always (
187
).

ĉie
(
adv.
), everywhere (
182
).

ĉiel
(
adv.
), in every way (
193
).

ĉiel-o
, heaven, sky.

ĉies
(
pronoun, possessive
), everybody's (
174
).

ĉifon-o
, rag.

ĉio
(
pronoun
), everything, all (
233
).

ĉiom
(
adv.
), all (
194
).

ĉirkaŭ
(
prep.
), around, roundabout (
89, 120, 159, 160
).

ĉiu
(
pronoun and adj.
), every one, each (
173
).

-ĉj-
,
suffix forming affectionate diminutives
(
283
).

ĉokolad-o
, chocolate.

ĉu
(
adv.
), whether (
when translated
) (
30, 66
).

D.

D.

da
(
prep.
), of (
after quantitative noun or adv.
) (
99, 101, 103
).

daktil-o
, date (fruit).

Damokl-o
, Damocles.

dan-o
, Dane.

danc-i
, to dance.

danĝer-o
, danger.

dank-i
, to thank.

dat-o
, date (chronological).

daŭr-i
(
intrans.
), to continue, last.

de
(
prep.
), of, from, by (49, 89, l00, 160, 169, 170).

dec-i
, to be proper, decent;
ne decas ke vi iru
, it is not proper for you to go.

decembr-o
, December.

decid-i
, to decide.

decigram-o
, decigram (
284
).

decilitr-o
, deciliter (
284
).

decimetr-o
, decimeter (
284
).

defend-i
, to defend.

degel-i
(
intrans.
), to thaw (
275
).

deĵor-i
, to be on duty (of officer, attendant, etc.).

dek
(
adj.
), ten (
136
).

dekagram-o
, dekagram (
284
).

dekalitr-o
, dekaliter (
284
).

dekametr-o
, dekameter (
284
).

deklam-i
, to declaim, recite.

dekstr-a
, right (not left).

deleg-i
, to delegate.

delikat-a
, delicate, dainty, nice.

demand-i
, to ask, inquire.

dens-a
, dense, thick, close.

dent-o
, tooth.

depeŝ-o
, a dispatch.

des
(
adv.
), the more (
used with
pli, 84).

desert-o
, dessert.

detal-o
, detail.

detru-i
, to destroy.

dev-i
, to have to, must (
247
).

dezert-o
, desert, waste.

dezir-i
, to desire.

Di-o
, God.

diamant-o
, diamond.

difekt-i
, to damage, spoil.

diferenc-a
, different.

difin-i
, to define, to destine.

dik-a
, thick, corpulent.

dikt-i
, to dictate (letters, etc.)

diligent-a
, diligent.

dimanĉ-o
, Sunday.

dimensi-o
, dimension.

Diogen-o
, Diogenes.

diplom-o
, diploma.

diplomat-o
, diplomat.

dir-i
, to say (
77
).

direkt-i
, to direct, guide, manage.

dis-
,
prefix expressing separation
(
245
).

diskut-i
, to discuss.

distanc-o
, distance.

disting-i
, to distinguish.

distr-i
, to distract, take away the attention.

diven-i
, to guess.

divers-a
, varied, diverse, different.

divid-i
(
trans.
), to divide.

do
, consequently, then, so.

doktor-o
, doctor.

dolar-o
, dollar.

dolĉ-a
, sweet, pleasant.

dolor-o
, pain, ache.

dom-o
, house.

domaĝ-o
, pity, regrettable affair.

don-i
, to give.

donac-i
, to make a gift, present.

dorlot-i
, to caress, fondle, pet.

dorm-i
, to sleep.

dorn-o
, thorn.

dors-o
, back (of the body).

dot-i
, to endow.

drap-o
, cloth.

drog-o
, drug.

dron-i
(
intrans.
), to drown (
275
).

du
(
adj.
), two (
136
)

dub-i
, to doubt.

dum
(
prep and conj.
), during, while (
96, 120, 159
).

dung-i
(
trans.
), to hire (persons).

E.

E.

eben-a
, even, flat, level.

-ebl-
,
suffix expressing possibility
(
161, 162
).

ebri-a
, inebriate, intoxicated.

-ec-
,
suffix forming abstracts
(
202
).

(
adv.
), even.

eduk-i
, to bring up, educate.

edz-o
, husband, married man.

efekt-o
, effect.

efektiv-a
, real, actual.

efik-i
, to be efficacious, act (on), produce a result.

-eg-
,
suffix forming augmentatives
(
122
).

egal-a
, equal.

Egipt-o
, Egypt.

eĥ-o
, echo.

-ej-
,
suffix forming words indicating place
(
III
).

ek-
,
prefix expressing suddenness or beginning
(
206
).

eks-
,
prefix expressing former incumbency
(
281
).

ekscit-i
, to excite.

eksperiment-i
, to experiment.

eksplod-i
(
intrans.
), to explode.

ekster
(
prep.
), outside of (
120, 121
).

ekzamen-i
, to examine, test.

ekzempl-o
, example.

ekzempler-o
, copy (of book or magazine).

ekzerc-i
(
trans.
), to exercise.

ekzil-i
, to exile, banish

ekzist-i
, to exist.

el
(
prep.
), out of, of, out (75, 106, 138, 197, 264, c).

elekt-i
, to choose.

elektr-a
, electric.

elokvent-a
, eloquent.

-em-
,
suffix expressing propensity or inclination
(
192
).

eminent-a
, eminent.

en
(
prep.
), in (
89,160
), into (
46
).

energi-o
, energy.

entrepren-i
, to undertake.

entuziasm-o
, enthusiasm.

enu-i
, to be wearied, be bored.

envi-i
, to envy.

epok-o
, epoch, period, time.

-er-
,
suffix expressing a component part
(
276
).

erar-i
, to err, make a mistake.

escept-i
, to except (
266
).

esper-i
, to hope.

esplor-i
, to investigate, explore.

esprim-i
, to express.

est-i
, to be (
109
).

establ-i
, to establish.

estim-i
, to esteem.

esting-i
, to extinguish.

-estr-
,
suffix expressing leadership or authority
(
253
).

-et-
,
suffix forming diminutives
(
198
).

etaĝ-o
, story (of a house); teretaĝo, ground floor; unua etaĝo, second story.

etend-i
(
trans.
), to extend, lengthen, widen.

etern-a
, eternal.

Eŭrop-o
, Europe.

evangeli-o
, gospel, evangel.

evit-i
, to avoid, shun.

evoluci-o
, evolution.

F.

F.

fab-o
, bean (leguminous fruit).

fabel-o
, story, tale.

fabl-o
, fable.

fabrik-i
, to manufacture.

facil-a
, easy.

faden-o
, thread.

fajf-i
, to whistle.

fajr-o
, fire.

fak-o
, department, specialty.

fakt-o
, fact.

fal-i
, to fall.

fald-i
, to fold.

fals-i
, to falsify, forge, debase.

fam-o
, fame, renown, rumor.

famili-o
, family.

familiar-a
, familiar, accustomed.

fand-i
(
trans.
), to smelt, fuse (metals, etc.).

fanfaron-i
, to boast, vaunt oneself, brag.

fantom-o
, phantom, ghost.

far-i
, to make, do, render.

faraon-o
, pharaoh (Egyptian ruler).

farm-i
, to farm (as a tenant).

farmaci-o
, pharmacy (knowledge of the use of drugs).

fart-i
, to be in (good or bad) health.

farun-o
, flour.

fask-o
, bundle, bunch.

fason-o
, cut, mode, fashion.

fatal-a
, fatal, predestined.

faŭk-o
, jaw (literal and figurative).

favor-a
, favorable.

fazeol-o
, bean (garden bean).

fe-o
, fairy, fay;
—ino
, fairy.

febr-o
, fever.

februar-o
, February.

fel-o
, skin, hide (of animals).

feliĉ-a
, happy.

femur-o
, thigh.

fend-i
(
trans.
), to split.

fenestr-o
, window.

fer-o
, iron;
—vojo
, railway.

ferdek-o
, deck (of ship).

ferm-i
(
trans.
), to close, shut.

fervor-o
, zeal, fervor.

fest-i
, to celebrate.

festen-o
, banquet.

fi
(
interjection
), fie! (
273
).

fiakr-o
, cab.

fianĉ-o
, betrothed man, fiance.

fid-i
, to rely upon, trust.

fidel-a
, faithful, loyal.

fier-a
, proud, haughty.

fil-o
, son.

filozof-o
, philosopher.

fin-i
(
trans.
), to finish, end.

fingr-o
, finger;
dika fingro
, thumb;
montra fingro
, index finger;
longa fingro
, middle finger;
ringa fingro
, ring-finger;
malgranda fingro
, little finger.

firm-a
, firm, steady.

fiŝ-o
, fish.

fizik-o
, physics, physical science.

flag-o
, flag, banner, small standard.

flank-o
, side.

flar-i
(
trans.
), to smell, scent.

flav-a
, yellow.

fleks-i
(
trans.
), to bend, flex.

flik-i
, to patch.

flor-o
, flower (
116
).

flu-i
, to flow.

flug-i
, to fly.

fluid-a
, fluid, liquid.

foj-o
, time, occasion (
127
).

fojn-o
, hay.

fokus-o
, focus.

foli-o
, leaf.

fond-i
, to found, establish.

font-o
, spring (of water), fount.

fontan-o
, fountain (artificial).

for
(
adv.
), away (
71
).

forges-i
, to forget.

fork-o
, fork.

form-o
, shape, form.

formik-o
, ant.

forn-o
, stove.

fort-a
, strong.

fos-i
, to dig.

fotograf-i
, to photograph

frag-o
, strawberry.

frak-o
, evening dress (for men).

frakas-i
, to shatter, break to pieces.

framb-o
, raspberry.

franc-o
, Frenchman.

frand-i
, to be fond of sweets, be an epicure.

franĝ-o
, fringe.

frap-i
, to knock, strike.

frat-o
, brother.

fraŭl-o
, bachelor, unmarried man.

fraz-o
, sentence, phrase.

Frederik-o
, Frederick.

fremd-a
, foreign.

frenez-a
, crazy, mad.

freŝ-a
, fresh, new.

fripon-o
, rogue, rascal, knave.

frit-i
(
trans.
), to fry.

fromaĝ-o
, cheese.

frost-o
, frost.

frot-i
, to rub.

fru-a
, early.

frukt-o
, fruit.

frunt-o
, forehead.

fulm-o
, lightning.

fum-i
, to smoke.

fund-o
, bottom.

fundament-o
, foundation, base.

funebr-o
, mourning.

fung-o
, mushroom.

funkci-i
, to function, work.

funt-o
, pound.

furioz-a
, furious, raging.

fuŝ-i
, to bungle.

fut-o
, foot (measure).

G.

G.

gaj-a
, gay, merry.

gajn-i
, to gain.

galeri-o
, gallery.

galop-i
, to gallop.

gant-o
, glove.

gard-i
, to guard, watch over.

gas-o
, gas.

gast-o
, guest.

gazet-o
, gazette, magazine.

ge-
,
prefix indicating both sexes together
(
271
).

general-o
, general (military).

genu-o
, knee;
—fleksi
, to kneel.

geometri-o
, geometry.

german-o
, German.

Gertrud-o
, Gertrude.

giĉet-o
, wicket, ticket-window, turnstile.

girland-o
, garland, wreath.

glaci-o
, ice;
—aĵo
, an ice (food).

glad-i
, to iron (linen, etc.).

glas-o
, tumbler, glass.

glat-a
, smooth, polished, flat.

glav-o
, sword.

glit-i
, to glide, slide.

glob-o
, globe.

glor-o
, glory.

glu-o
, glue.

glut-i
, to swallow.

gorĝ-o
, throat.

graci-a
, graceful.

grad-o
, grade, degree.

graf-o
, count;
—lando
, county.

gram-o
, gram (
284
).

gramatik-o
, grammar.

grand-a
, great, large, big.

gras-o
, fat.

gratul-i
, to congratulate.

grav-a
, important, serious, grave.

gravit-i
, to gravitate.

grek-o
, Greek.

gren-o
, grain (wheat, corn, etc.).

grimp-i
, to climb up, creep up.

grinc-i
, to grind, gnash.

griz-a
, gray.

grup-o
, group.

gurd-o
, hurdy-gurdy, barrel organ.

gust-o
, taste.

gut-i
, to drip.

gvid-i
, to guide.

Ĝ.

Ĝ.

ĝarden-o
, garden.

ĝem-i
, to groan.

ĝen-i
, to disturb, incommode.

ĝeneral-a
, general, common.

ĝentil-a
, courteous, polite.

ĝi
(
pronoun
), it (
32, 37, 42, 274
).

ĝis
(
prep.
), as far as, until (
46, 89
).

ĝoj-i
, to rejoice, be glad (
116
).

ĝu-i
, to enjoy, find pleasure in.

ĝust-a
, exact, just.

H.

H.

hajl-o
, hail (frozen rain).

hak-i
, to chop, hack;
—ilo
, axe.

halt-i
(
intrans.
), to halt, stop.

har-o
, a hair.

haŭt-o
, skin (human).

hav-i
, to have.

haven-o
, harbor, port.

hazard-o
, chance, hazard.

hebre-o
, Hebrew.

hejm-o
, home.

hejt-i
(
trans.
), to heat (a place).

hektar-o
, hektare (
284
).

hektogram-o
, hektogram (
284
).

hektolitr-o
, hektoliter (
284
).

hektometr-o
, hektometer (
284
).

hel-a
, bright, clear.

help-i
, to help, aid, assist.

herb-o
, grass, herb.

hero-o
, hero.

hezit-i
, to hesitate.

hieraŭ
(
adv.
), yesterday (
93, 171
).

Hieron-o
, Hiero.

hipokrit-i
, to play the hypocrite.

hirund-o
, swallow (bird).

hispan-o
, Spaniard.

histori-o
, history.

ho
(
interjection
), ho, oh (
273
).

hodiaŭ
(
adv.
), today (
93, 171
).

Holand-o
, Holland.

hom-o
, human being.

honest-a
, honest.

honor-i
, to honor.

hont-i
, to be ashamed.

hor-o
, hour (
185
).

horizont-o
, horizon.

horizontal-a
, horizontal.

horloĝ-o
, clock; poŝhorloĝo, watch.

hotel-o
, hotel.

humil-a
, humble.

humor-o
, humor, temper.

hund-o
, dog.

hura!
(
interjection
), hurrah!

Ĥ.

H.

ĥemi-o
, chemistry.

ĥin-o
, Chinaman.

ĥor-o
, choir.

I.

I.

ia
, any kind of (
208
).

ial
(
adv.
), for any reason (
213
).

iam
(
adv.
), ever, at any time, once (
212
).

-id-
,
suffix indicating descendant or young of
(
207
).

ide-o
, idea.

ideal-o
, ideal.

ident-a
, identical.

idiom-o
, idiom.

idiot-o
, idiot.

ie
(
adv.
), somewhere (
209
).

iel
(
adv.
), somehow (
216
).

ies
(
pronoun, possessive
), somebody's (
204
).

-ig-
,
suffix forming causative verbs
(
214, 239, 275
).

ignor-i
, to ignore.

-iĝ-
,
suffix forming inchoative and intransitive verbs
(
232, 239, 279
).

-il-
,
suffix forming names of instruments
(
63
).

ili
(
pronoun
), they (
32, 37, 42
).

ilustr-i
, to illustrate.

iluzi-o
, illusion, delusion.

imag-i
, to imagine, fancy.

imit-i
, to imitate.

imperi-o
, empire.

implik-i
, to implicate.

impost-o
, tax, impost.

impres-i
, to impress.

impuls-o
, impulse.

-in-
,
suffix forming feminines
(
59
).

incit-i
, to incite, arouse, provoke.

-ind-
,
suffix expressing worth or merit
(
154
).

indian-o
, Indian (American).

indiferent-a
, indifferent, unconcerned, unimportant.

industri-o
, industry (trade, business).

infan-o
, child.

infekt-i
, to infect, contaminate.

influ-i
, to influence.

inform-i
, to give information.

-ing-
,
suffix expressing a holder or container
(
237
).

inĝenier-o
, engineer.

ink-o
, ink.

insekt-o
, insect.

insist-i
, to insist.

inspir-i
, to inspire.

instru-i
, to instruct, teach.

insul-o
, island.

insult-i
, to insult.

inteligent-a
, intelligent.

intend-i
, to intend.

inter
(
prep.
), between, among (
85, 89, 160
).

interes-i
(
trans.
), to interest.

intermit-i
, to be intermittent.

intern-a
, internal;
—e
, inside.

interpret-i
, to interpret.

intim-a
, intimate.

invit-i
, to invite.

io
(
pronoun
), something (
233
).

iom
(
adv.
), some, a certain amount; iom post iom, little by little (
217
).

ir-i
, to go.

-ist-
,
suffix indicating profession, etc.
(
172
).

ital-o
, Italian.

iu
(
pronoun
), some one, a certain (one) (
203
).

J.

J.

ja
(
adv.
), indeed, in fact (
215
).

jak-o
, jacket, short coat.

jam
(
adv.
), already.

januar-o
, January.

jar-o
, year.

je
,
prep. of indefinite meaning
(
89, 185, 260
).

jen
(
adv.
), there, behold (
228
).

jes
(
adv.
), yes (
171
).

Jesu-o
, Jesus.

Johano
, John.

ju
(
adv.
), the more (
used with
pli, 84).

jug-o
, yoke.

juĝ-i
, to judge.

juli-o
, July.

jun-a
, young.

jung-i
, to harness.

juni-o
, June.

jup-o
, skirt.

jurist-o
, jurist.

just-a
, just, upright.

juvel-o
, jewel.

Ĵ.

Ĵ.

ĵaluz-a
, jealous.

ĵaŭd-o
, Thursday.

ĵet-i
, to throw, cast, hurl.

ĵongl-i
, to juggle.

ĵur-i
, to take oath, swear.

ĵurnal-o
, newspaper, journal.

ĵus
(
adv.
), a moment before, just.

K.

K.

kadavr-o
, corpse.

kadr-o
, frame (of pictures).

kaduk-a
, decaying, in ruin.

kaf-o
, coffee.

kaĝ-o
, cage.

kahel-o
, tile (for paving).

kaj
(
conj.
), and; kaj..kaj.., both..and.. (
26
).

kajer-o
, notebook.

kaldron-o
, caldron.

kalendar-o
, calendar.

kaleŝ-o
, carriage.

kalkan-o
, heel (of the foot);
—umo
, heel of a shoe.

kalkul-i
, to calculate, reckon.

kamel-o
, camel.

kamen-o
, chimney.

kamer-o
, camera.

kamp-o
, field.

kanajl-o
, scoundrel, rascal.

kanap-o
, sofa.

kand-o
, candy.

kandel-o
, candle.

kanot-o
, canoe.

kant-i
, to sing.

kap-o
, head.

kapabl-a
, capable.

kapel-o
, chapel (for prayer).

kapital-o
, capital (money).

kapitol-o
, capitol.

kapt-i
, to catch, seize.

kar-a
, dear, prized.

karakter-o
, character.

karb-o
, coal.

karcer-o
, jail.

kares-i
, to caress.

karn-o
, flesh.

karot-o
, carrot.

kart-o
, card; poŝtkarto, postcard; vizitkarto, visiting card.

karton-o
, pasteboard.

karusel-o
, merry-go-round.

kas-o
, money-box, treasury;
—isto
, cashier, treasurer.

kaskad-o
, waterfall, cascade.

kastel-o
, castle.

kaŝ-i
, to hide, conceal (
252
).

kaŝtan-o
, chestnut.

kat-o
, cat.

katen-o
, fetter, chain.

kaŭz-o
, cause.

kav-o
, cavity, hole.

kaz-o
, case (grammatical).

ke
(
conj.
), that (
53, 83, 105, 259, 262
).

kel-o
, cellar.

kelk-a
, some;
—aj
, several, more than one or two.

kelner-o
, waiter (in hotel or restaurant).

kest-o
, chest; tirkesto, drawer.

kia
, what kind of (
112, 150
); kiamanier-e, how.

kial
(
adv.
), why (
129
).

kiam
(
adv.
), when (
123, 155
).

kie
(
adv.
), where (
118, 151
).

kiel
(
adv.
), how, in which way, as (
134, 156
).

kies
(
pronoun, possessive
), whose (
107, 147
).

kilogram-o
, kilogram (
284
).

kilolitr-o
, kiloliter (
284
).

kilometr-o
, kilometer (
284
).

kio
(
pronoun
), what (
233
).

kiom
(
adv.
), how much (
140, 164, 185
).

kis-i
, to kiss.

kiu
(
pronoun
), who (
106, 146
).

klak-i
(
trans.
), to clap, clatter.

klar-a
, clear, distinct.

klav-o
, key (of piano, etc.).

klas-o
, class.

kler-a
, enlightened, well-in-formed.

klimat-o
, climate.

klin-i
(
trans.
), to incline, bend.

kling-o
, blade (of knife, etc.).

klopod-i
, to undertake initiative work, take steps toward, labor for the success or completion of something.

klub-o
, club (organization)

knab-o
, boy.

kobold-o
, sprite, kobold, brownie.

kofr-o
, trunk, chest with a lid.

kok-o
, cock (domestic fowl).

koket-a
, coquettish.

koks-o
, hip.

kol-o
, neck.

kolbas-o
, sausage.

kolegi-o
, college.

kolekt-i
(trans.), to collect, gather.

koler-i
, to be angry, lose the temper.

kolomb-o
, pigeon, dove.

kolon-o
, column, pillar.

kolonel-o
, colonel.

kolor-o
, color.

kolport-i
, to peddle.

komand-i
, to command (military and naval).

komb-i
, to comb.

komedi-o
, comedy.

komenc-i
(trans.), to begin, commence.

komerc-i
, to trade, engage in commerce.

komfort-o
, comfort (freedom from pain, want, etc.).

komisi-i
, to entrust with, put in charge of, give the agency for.

komitat-o
, committee.

komiz-o
, clerk, employee, assistant.

kompani-o
, company (commercial organization).

kompar-i
, (
trans.
) to compare, (
266
).

kompat-i
, to pity, have compassion for.

komplet-o
, suit (of clothes).

komplez-o
, kindness, courtesy, disposition to oblige.

komplik-i
, to complicate.

kompost-i
, to compose, set (type);
—isto
, compositor.

kompot-o
, jam, preserve,

kompren-i
, to understand.

komun-a
, common, mutual.

komunik-i
, to communicate.

kon-i
, to be acquainted with, know;
—atiĝi kun
, to become acquainted with (
117
).

koncern-i
, to concern (
266
).

koncert-o
, concert (musical).

kondamn-i
, to condemn.

kondiĉ-o
, terms specified, stipulation, condition.

konduk-i
, to conduct, lead.

konduktor-o
, conductor (of car, train, etc.).

kondut-i
, to behave, conduct oneself.

konfes-i
, to confess, admit.

konfid-i
, to trust, have confidence in.

konfit-i
, to preserve, pickle (fruits, etc.).

konform-i
, to be in conformity with (
266
).

konfuz-i
, to confuse, confound.

kongres-o
, congress (assembly).

konk-o
, shell (of mollusk, etc.).

konkur-i
, to vie, compete.

konkurenc-o
, competition (in business, etc.).

konkurs-o
, prearranged trial of skill, formal competition (for prizes, etc.).

konsci-i
, to be conscious.

konscienc-o
, conscience.

konsent-i
, to consent, agree.

konserv-i
, to keep, preserve, save.

konservativ-a
, conservative.

konsil-i
, to advise, counsel.

konsist-i
, to consist.

konsol-i
, to console, comfort.

konsonant-o
, consonant.

konspir-i
, to conspire, plot.

konstant-a
, constant.

konstat-i
, to verify, ascertain the truth of, certify.

konstituci-o
, constitution.

konstru-i
, to build.

konsul-o
, consul.

konsult-i
, to seek advice of, consult.

kont-o
, account (book-keeping, commercial).

kontent-a
, content, satisfied.

kontinent-o
, continent (geographical).

kontrakt-i
, to contract, agree.

kontralt-o
, contralto.

kontraŭ
(
prep.
), against, opposite, opposed to (
159, 160
).

kontrol-i
, to control, inspect, examine and check.

kontur-o
, outline, contour.

kontuz-i
, to bruise.

konven-i
, to be suitable, be fitting or convenient.

konvink-i
, to convince, persuade.

kopi-i
, to copy.

kor-o
, heart (of the body).

korb-o
, basket.

korekt-i
, to correct.

korespond-i
, to exchange letters, correspond.

koridor-o
, corridor, passage.

kork-o
, cork (bark).

korn-o
, horn.

korp-o
, body,
—a
, corporeal.

korpus-o
, corps (military).

kort-o
, courtyard, court.

kortego
, court (royal, etc.).

korv-o
, raven.

kost-i
, to cost.

kostum-o
, costume.

kot-o
, mud.

kotiz-i
, to pay dues, pay one's share of an assessment.

kotlet-o
, cutlet, chop.

koton-o
, cotton.

kov-i
, to brood (of birds).

kovert-o
, envelope

kovr-i
, to cover.

krab-o
, crab.

krad-o
, grating, grate, lattice.

krajon-o
, pencil.

krak-i
, to clack, crackle.

kran-o
, faucet, tap.

kravat-o
, cravat.

kre-i
, to create.

kred-i
, to believe (
265
).

krem-o
, cream.

krepusk-o
, twilight, half-light of dawn or evening.

kresk-i
, to grow.

krestomati-o
, chrestomathy, collection of selected passages.

kret-o
, chalk.

krev-i
(
intrans.
), to burst, crack open (suddenly and with noise).

kri-i
, to cry out.

kribr-i
, to sift (with a sieve).

krim-o
, crime.

kring-o
, ring-shaped biscuit.

kripl-a
, crippled.

Krist-o
, Christ.

kritik-i
, to criticise.

kroĉ-i
, to hook.

krom
(
prep.
), beside, aside from, except, save, but.

kron-o
, crown.

kruc-o
, cross;
—umi
, to crucify.

kruĉ-o
, pitcher, jug; tekruĉo, tea-pot.

kruel-a
, cruel.

krur-o
, leg.

krust-o
, crust.

krut-a
, steep.

kubut-o
, elbow.

kudr-i
, to sew.

kugl-o
, bullet.

kuir-i
, to cook.

kuk-o
, cake;
—aĵo
, pastry.

kukum-o
, cucumber.

kukurb-o
, pumpkin.

kuler-o
, spoon.

kulp-a
, guilty.

kultur-i
, to cultivate; terkulturi, to till the soil, farm.

kun
(
prep.
), with (
70, 76, 120, 160, 159
).

kunikl-o
, rabbit.

kupon-o
, coupon.

kupr-o
, copper (metal).

kur-i
, to run.

kurac-i
, to treat for illness, cure;
—ato
, a patient;
—isto
, a physician, medical man.

kuraĝ-o
, courage.

kurb-o
, curve.

kurioz-a
, uncommon, curious.

kurs-o
, course (of lessons).

kurten-o
, curtain.

kusen-o
, cushion.

kuŝ-i
, to lie, recline (
239
).

kutim-o
, custom, habit.

kuv-o
, tub, large basin.

kuz-o
, cousin.

kvadrat-o
, square (equilateral rectangle).

kvalit-o
, quality, texture.

kvankam
(
conj.
), though, although, while (concessive).

kvant-o
, quantity, amount.

kvar
, (
adj.
), four (
136
).

kvartal-o
, quarter (of a city).

kvazaŭ
(
conj.
), as though, as if (
250
).

kverk-o
, oak.

kviet-a
, calm, quiet.

kvin
, (
adj.
), five (
136
).

kvitanc-o
, receipt (for payment).

L.

L.

la
(article), the (
II, 47, 201, 280, a
).

labor-i
, to work, labor.

lac-a
, tired, weary.

laĉ-o
, string, lace (of shoe, etc.).

lad-o
, tin plate (sheet iron covered with tin).

lag-o
, lake.

lakt-o
, milk.

laktuk-o
, lettuce.

lam-a
, lame.

lamp-o
, lamp.

lan-o
, wool.

lanc-o
, lance, spear.

land-o
, land, country.

lang-o
, tongue (of the body).

lantern-o
, lantern.

lanug-o
, down (hairs, feathers).

lard-o
, bacon.

larĝ-a
, wide, broad.

larm-o
, tear (of the eye).

las-i
, (
trans.
), to leave, let, permit.

last-a
, last (in a series).

latin-a
, Latin.

laŭ
(
prep.
), in accordance with, along, by (
191
).

laŭb-o
, arbor, summer-house.

laŭd-i
, to praise.

laŭt-a
, loud.

lav-i
, to wash.

lecion-o
, lesson.

led-o
, leather.

leg-i
, to read.

legom-o
, vegetable.

leĝ-o
, law.

lek-i
, to lick.

leon-o
, lion.

lepor-o
, hare.

lern-i
, to learn.

lert-a
, clever, skilful.

leter-o
, letter (epistle).

lev-i
, to raise, lift.

li
(
pronoun
), he, him (
32, 37, 42
).

liber-a
, free.

libr-o
, book.

lig-i
, to tie, bind, fasten;
—ilo
, bond; that which ties or fastens;
—aĵo
, knot;
—o
, league, alliance.

lign-o
, wood.

lim-o
, limit, boundary.

limonad-o
, lemonade.

lingv-o
, language.

lini-o
, line;
—ilo
, ruler.

lip-o
, lip;
—haroj
, moustache.

lit-o
, bed (for sleeping).

liter-o
, letter of the alphabet; laŭlitera, literal.

literatur-o
, literature.

litr-o
, liter (
284
).

liver-i
, to deliver, supply, furnish.

log-i
, to allure.

loĝ-i
, to dwell, reside (
133
).

lok-o
, place;
—a
, local.

lokomotiv-o
, locomotive.

long-a
, long.

lonicer-o
, honeysuckle.

lorn-o
, telescope, spyglass;
—eto
, opera-glasses.

lu-i
, to hire, rent (engage and pay rent for).

lud-i
, to play.

luks-o
, luxury.

lul-i
, to lull to sleep;
—ilo
, cradle.

lum-i
, to shine (
275
).

lun-o
, moon.

lunatik-o
, lunatic.

lund-o
, Monday.

lup-o
, wolf.

M.

M.

maĉ-i
, to chew, masticate.

magazen-o
, warehouse.

magi-o
, magic.

magistr-o
, master of arts (A.M.).

maiz-o
, maize, Indian corn.

maj-o
, May.

majest-a
, majestic.

majones-a
, mayonnaise.

majstr-o
, master (of his art or profession).

makaroni-o
, macaroni.

maksimum-o
, maximum.

makul-o
, spot, stain.

makzel-o
, jaw;
—osto
, jawbone.

mal-
,
prefix forming opposites
(
67
).

maleol-o
, ankle.

malgraŭ
(
prep.
), notwithstanding.

malic-a
, malicious.

man-o
, hand.

mandat-o
, money-order.

manĝ-i
, to eat.

manier-o
, manner, way.

manik-o
, sleeve.

mank-i
(
intrans.
), to be lacking, wanting.

mantel-o
, cloak, mantle.

manuskript-o
, manuscript.

mar-o
, sea.

marĉ-o
, swamp, marsh.

mard-o
, Tuesday.

Mari-o
, Mary.

mark-o
, mark.

marmelad-o
, marmalade.

marmor-o
, marble (stone),

marŝ-i
, to walk.

mart-o
, March.

martel-o
, hammer.

mastr-o
, master (of a house, etc.)

maŝin-o
, machine.

maten-o
, morning (
93
).

material-o
, material.

matur-a
, ripe, mature.

mebl-o
, piece of furniture.

medicin-o
, medicine (the science).

meĥanik-o
, mechanics.

mejl-o
, mile.

meleagr-o
, turkey.

melk-i
, to milk.

melodi-o
, melody.

melon-o
, melon.

mem
(
pronoun
), self, selves (
219
).

membr-o
, limb, member.

memor-i
, to remember, keep in mind; rememori, to recall to memory.

mend-i
, to order (of a store, etc.).

mensog-i
, to lie, tell lies.

menton-o
, chin.

menu-o
, menu.

merit-i
, to deserve, merit.

merkred-o
, Wednesday.

merl-o
, blackbird.

met-i
, to put, place.

metal-o
, metal.

meti-o
, trade, handicraft.

metod-o
, method, way.

metr-o
, meter (
284
).

mez-o
, middle.

mezur-i
, to measure.

mi
(
pronoun
), I, me (
32, 37
).

miel-o
, honey.

mien-o
, appearance, mien.

miks-i
(trans.), to mix.

mil
(
adj.
), thousand (
142
).

mild-a
, mild.

milimetr-o
, millimeter (
284
).

milion-o
, million.

milit-i
, to fight, wage war.

min-o
, mine (of coal, silver, etc.).

minac-i
, to threaten.

mineral-o
, mineral.

minimum-o
, minimum.

ministr-o
, minister (political).

minut-o
, minute.

miop-a
, shortsighted.

mir-i
, to wonder.

mister-o
, mystery.

mizer-o
, misery.

mod-o
, mode, fashion.

model-o
, model.

moder-a
, moderate.

modest-a
, modest.

mok-i
, to mock.

mol-a
, soft.

moment-o
, moment;
—a
, momentary, instantaneous.

mon-o
, money.

monaĥ-o
, monk.

monarĥi-o
, monarch.

monat-o
, month.

mond-o
, world.

mont-o
, mountain.

montr-i
(
trans.
), to show.

mor-o
, conduct (in regard to right or wrong);
—oj
, morals.

moral-a
, moral;
—eco
, morality.

mord-i
, to bite.

morgaŭ
(
adv.
), tomorrow (
171
).

mort-i
, to die;
—igi
, to kill.

moŝt-o
,
title of respect
(
258
).

mov-i
(
trans.
), to move, put in motion.

muel-o
, mill (for grinding).

muĝ-i
, to roar, bellow.

mult-a
, much (
81
).

mur-o
, wall.

murmur-i
, to murmur.

mus-o
, mouse.

mustard-o
, mustard.

muŝ-o
, fly.

mut-a
, dumb, mute.

muze-o
, museum.

muzik-o
, music.

N.

N.

naci-o
, nation.

naĝ-i
, to swim.

naiv-a
, artless, naive, ingenuous.

najbar-o
, neighbor.

najl-o
, nail (of metal).

nap-o
, turnip.

nask-i
, to produce, bring forth, give birth to.

natur-o
, nature.

naŭ
(
adj.
), nine (
136
).

naz-o
, nose.

ne
(
adv.
), no, not (27, 66, a, 171).

nebul-o
, fog, mist.

neces-a
, necessary.

negativ-o
, negative (photographic).

neĝ-o
, snow.

nek
(
negative conj.
), neither, nor (
31
).

nenia
, no kind of (
224
).

nenial
(
adv.
), for no reason (
229
).

neniam
(
adv.
), never (
226
).

nenie
(
adv.
), nowhere (
225
).

neniel
(
adv.
), in no way (
230
).

nenies
(
pronoun, possessive
), nobody's (
221
).

nenio
(
pronoun
), nothing (
233
).

neniom
(
adv.
), none, not any (
231
).

neniu
(
pronoun
), no one, nobody, no (
220
).

nep-o
, grandson.

nepr-e
, inevitably, certainly, unfailingly.

nerv-o
, nerve.

nest-o
, nest.

neŭtral-a
, neutral, non-partisan.

nev-o
, nephew.

ni
(
pronoun
), we, us (
32, 37
).

nigr-a
, black.

nivel-o
, level.

-nj-
,
suffix forming affectionate diminutives
(
283
).

nobel-o
, nobleman.

nobl-a
, noble (in character).

nokt-o
, night.

nom-o
, name;
—i
, to name, mention.

nombr-o
, number (quantity).

nord-o
, north.

norveg-o
, Norwegian.

nostalgi-o
, homesickness.

not-o
, note.

nov-a
, new, recent, novel; denove, anew, again.

novembr-o
, November.

nu
(
interjection
), well! (
273
).

nuanc-o
, shade, tint, hue.

nub-o
, cloud.

nud-a
, bare, naked, nude.

nuks-o
, nut.

nul-o
, zero, naught.

numer-o
, number, numeral (No.).

nun
(
adv.
), now (
171
).

nur
(
adv.
), merely, only.

nutr-i
, to nourish, to feed.

O.

O.

obe-i
, to obey (
265
).

objekt-o
, object, thing.

objektiv-o
, lens, objective.

-obl-
,
suffix forming multiples
(
186
).

oblikv-a
, oblique, slanting.

observ-i
, to observe, take note of.

obstin-a
, obstinate.

ocean-o
, ocean.

odor-i
, to smell (good or bad).

ofend-i
, to offend.

ofer-i
, to sacrifice, offer.

ofic-o
, office, employment;
—isto
, officer (of firm or organization);
—ejo
, office (the place).

oficial-a
, official.

oficir-o
, officer (military or naval).

oft-a
, frequent.

ok
(
adj.
), eight (
136
).

okaz-i
, to happen, occur, take place.

okcident-o
, west.

oktobr-o
, October.

okul-o
, eye.

okup-i
, to occupy.

ol
(
conj.
), than (
82, 97, 98
).

ole-o
, oil.

oliv-o
, olive.

ombr-o
, shadow, shade.

ombrel-o
, umbrella.

-on-
,
suffix forming fractions
(
166
).

ond-o
, wave.

oni
(
pronoun
), one, they (
54
).

onkl-o
, uncle.

-op-
,
suffix forming collective numerals
(
261
).

oper-o
, opera.

opini-i
, to have the opinion, think.

oportun-a
, handy, convenient, opportune.

or-o
, gold.

oranĝ-o
, orange (fruit).

ord-o
, order (methodical or proper arrangement).

ordinar-a
, ordinary; eksterordinara, extraordinary.

ordon-i
, to order, bid, command.

orel-o
, ear (of the body).

orf-o
, orphan.

organ-o
, organ (physical).

organiz-i
, to organize.

orgen-o
, organ, (musical instrument).

orient-o
, east.

original-o
, original.

orkestr-o
, orchestra.

ornam-i
, to ornament, adorn.

ort-a
, right-angled.

osced-i
, to gape, yawn.

ost-o
, bone.

ostr-o
, oyster.

ostracism-o
, ostracism.

ov-o
, egg.

P.

P.

pac-o
, peace.

pacienc-o
, patience.

padel-i
, to paddle.

paf-i
, to shoot (with gun, etc.).

pag-i
, to pay.

paĝ-o
, page (of a book, etc.).

pajl-o
, straw.

pak-i
, to pack.

pal-a
, pale.

palac-o
, palace.

palis-o
, stake;
—aro
, palisade.

palp-i
, to feel (with the fingers, etc.);
—ado
, touch (the sense).

palpebr-o
, eyelid.

pan-o
, bread.

pantalon-o
, trousers.

pantofl-o
, slipper.

paper-o
, paper (material).

papili-o
, butterfly.

par-o
, pair.

paradiz-o
, paradise.

paragraf-o
, paragraph.

paralel-a
, parallel.

pardon-i
, to forgive, pardon (
265
).

parenc-o
, relative (person).

parfum-o
, perfume.

park-o
, park.

parker-e
, by rote, by heart, from memory.

parol-i
, to speak (
77
).

part-o
, part, share.

particip-o
, participle.

pas-i
, (
intrans.
), to pass.

pasaĝer-o
, passenger.

paser-o
, sparrow.

pasi-o
, passion.

pasiv-a
, passive.

Pask-o
, Easter.

pasteĉ-o
, patty, small pie.

pastinak-o
, parsnip.

pastr-o
, pastor, clergyman, priest.

paŝ-i
, to step.

paŝt-i
(
trans.
), to pasture, feed;
—isto
, shepherd.

pat-o
, pan, frying-pan.

patr-o
, father.

paŭz-o
, pause.

pavim-o
, pavement.

pec-o
, piece, morsel.

pejzaĝ-o
, landscape.

pek-i
, to sin.

pekl-i
, to pickle (meat, etc.).

pel-i
, to chase away, drive off.

pelt-o
, coat or wrap of fur.

pen-i
, to strive, try.

pend-i
(
intrans.
), to hang.

penetr-i
, to penetrate.

penik-o
, paintbrush, hair pencil.

pens-i
, to think.

pent-i
, to repent.

pentr-i
, to paint.

pep-i
, to chirp, twitter.

per
(
prep.
), by means of, with, by (
64
).

perd-i
, to lose.

pere-i
, to perish.

perfekt-a
, perfect.

perfid-i
, to betray;
—a
, perfidious, treacherous.

period-a
, periodic.

perl-o
, pearl.

permes-i
, to permit, allow, let.

peron-o
, platform (railway), stoop (entrance porch).

persekut-i
, to persecute, prosecute.

persik-o
, peach.

persist-i
, to persist, persevere.

person-o
, person.

peruk-o
, wig.

pes-i
(
trans.
), to ascertain the weight of;
—ilo
, scales, balance.

pet-i
, to request, beg, ask.

petol-i
, to be mischievous, saucy, roguish.

petrol-o
, petroleum, kerosene.

petrosel-o
, parsley.

pez-i
(
intrans.
), to be heavy, weigh.

pi-a
, pious.

pice-o
, spruce (tree).

pied-o
, foot;
—iranto
, pedestrian.

piedestal-o
, pedestal.

pik-i
, to prick, sting.

pilgrim-i
, to go on a pilgrimage.

pilk-o
, ball (to play with).

pin-o
, pine (tree).

pinakotek-o
, picture gallery.

pinĉ-i
, to pinch.

pingl-o
, pin.

pint-o
, point, pinnacle, summit.

pionir-o
, pioneer.

pip-o
, pipe (for smoking).

pipr-o
, pepper.

pir-o
, pear.

pist-i
, to crush, mash;
—aĵo
, purée.

pitoresk-a
, picturesque.

piz-o
, pea.

plac-o
, public square, place (broad, short street or open space).

plaĉ-i
, to please, to be pleasing (
265
).

plad-o
, flat dish.

plafon-o
, ceiling.

plan-o
, plan, scheme.

pland-o
, sole (of the foot).

planed-o
, planet.

plank-o
, floor.

plant-i
, to plant.

plat-a
, flat, plane.

plaŭd-i
(
trans.
), to splash, dabble (a liquid).

plej
(
adv.
), most (
74, 79, 81, 162
); malplej, least (
80
).

plekt-i
, to weave, plait, braid.

plen-a
, full; plenum-i, to fulfil.

plend-i
, to complain.

plet-o
, tray.

plezur-o
, pleasure.

pli
(
adv.
), more (
74, 79, 81
); malpli, less (
80
).

plor-i
, to weep, cry.

plu
(
adv.
), further, more, any more.

plug-i
, to plow.

plum-o
, pen, feather.

plumb-o
, lead (metal);
—isto
, plumber.

pluv-o
, rain.

pneŭmatik-o
, pneumatic tire.

po
(
prep.
), at the rate of (
175
).

poem-o
, poem.

poet-o
, poet.

poezi-o
, poetry, poesy.

pokal-o
, goblet, cup.

pol-o
, Pole.

polic-o
, police (force).

politik-o
, politics.

polm-o
, palm (of the hand).

polur-i
, to polish, make smooth and glossy.

polus-o
, pole (geographical).

polv-o
, dust.

pom-o
, apple.

pomp-o
, pomp, splendor.

pont-o
, bridge.

popol-o
, a people, folk.

popular-a
, popular.

por
(
prep.
), for (
95, 98, 262
).

porcelan-o
, porcelain, china.

porci-o
, portion, share.

pord-o
, door.

pork-o
, swine, pig, hog.

port-i
, to carry, bear.

portret-o
, portrait.

posed-i
, to possess, own.

post
(
prep.
), after, behind (
89, 120
).

postul-i
, to require, demand.

poŝ-o
, pocket.

poŝt-o
, post (mail);
—kesto
, mailbox;
—marko
, postage stamp;
—mandato
, postal money order.

pot-o
, pot.

potenc-a
, powerful, mighty.

pov-i
, to be able, can (
72
).

pra-
,
prefix indicating remoteness in line of descent
(
282
).

praktik-o
, practice.

prav-a
, right, in the right.

precip-a
, principal, chief.

preciz-a
, precise.

predik-i
, to preach.

prefer-i
, to prefer.

prefiks-o
, prefix.

preĝ-i
, to pray;
—ejo
, church.

prem-i
, to press.

premi-o
, premium, prize.

pren-i
, to take.

prepar-i
, to prepare.

pres-i
, to print.

preskaŭ
(
adv.
), almost.

pret-a
, ready.

pretekst-i
, to make pretext of, pretend, sham.

pretend-i
, to make pretension to, lay claim to.

preter
(
prep.
), beyond, past, by.

prez-o
, price.

prezent-i
, to present, offer.

prezid-i
, to preside;
—anto
, presiding officer, president, chairman.

pri
(
prep.
), concerning, about, of (160, 264, c).

princ-o
, prince.

princip-o
, principle.

printemp-o
, spring (season).

pro
(
prep.
), on account of, because of, for (
86
).

problem-o
, problem.

procent-o
, interest, percentage.

proces-o
, lawsuit, legal process.

produkt-i
, to produce.

profesi-o
, profession, occupation, calling.

profesor-o
, professor.

profil-o
, profile.

profit-o
, profit;
—i
, to profit (by).

profund-a
, deep, profound.

progres-i
, to progress.

projekt-o
, project.

proklam-i
, to proclaim.

prokrast-i
, to delay, procrastinate.

proksim-a
, near.

promen-i
, to go walking, promenade.

promes-i
, to promise.

propon-i
, to propose, offer.

proporci-o
, proportion.

propr-a
, own (one's own); malpropra, other people's;
—igi al si
, to appropriate, make one's own.

prosper-i
, to have success, prosper.

protekt-i
, to protect.

protest-i
, to protest.

protokol-o
, minutes (of a meeting).

prov-i
, to try, attempt, test.

proviz-i
, to provide.

proz-o
, prose;
—aĵo
, prose composition, piece of prose.

prudent-a
, reasonable, sensible, rational.

prujn-o
, hoar frost.

prun-o
, plum.

prunt-o
, loan;
—i
, (
—e doni)
, to lend;
—e preni
, to borrow.

pruv-i
, to prove, give proof of.

psalm-o
, psalm.

publik-o
, public (the);
—igi
, to publish.

puding-o
, pudding.

pudr-i
, to powder.

pugn-o
, fist.

pulm-o
, lung.

pulv-o
, gunpowder.

pump-i
, to pump.

pun-i
, to punish.

punt-o
, lace (point, etc.).

pup-o
, doll.

pupitr-o
, desk.

pur-a
, clean, pure.

purpur-a
, purple.

puŝ-i
, to push; repuŝi, to repulse.

put-o
, well (for water).

R.

R.

rabarb-o
, rhubarb.

rab-i
, to pillage, plunder;
—isto
, robber.

rabat-i
, to rebate, give a reduction, discount or rebate.

rad-o
, wheel.

radi-o
, ray (of light), spoke (of wheel), radius.

radik-o
, root.

rafan-o
, radish.

rafin-i
, to refine;
—ejo
, refinery.

rajd-i
, to ride (horse, etc.).

rajt-o
, right (to something).

rakont-i
, to relate, narrate (
77
).

ramp-i
, to creep, crawl, clamber.

ran-o
, frog.

rand-o
, edge, border.

rang-o
, rank, grade, dignity.

rapid-a
, rapid, quick;
—o
, speed;
—emo
, haste.

raport-i
, to report, give a report.

ras-o
, race (tribe, people, nation).

rasp-i
, to rasp, grate;
—ilo
, grater.

rat-o
, rat.

raŭk-a
, hoarse, raucous.

rav-i
, to enchant.

raz-i
, to shave.

re-
,
prefix indicating repetition or return
(
223
).

real-a
, real.

reciprok-a
, reciprocal, mutual (
180
).

redakci-o
, editorial department.

redakt-i
, to edit.

redaktor-o
, editor.

redingot-o
, frock coat.

refut-i
, to refute.

reg-i
, to rule, govern, reign.

regal-i
(
trans.
), to regale, treat (to food or drink).

region-o
, region.

registr-i
(
trans.
), to register, enroll.

regn-o
, state, governed body;
—ano
, citizen, subject.

regul-o
, rule, regulation.

reĝ-o
, king.

reklam-i
, to advertise.

rekomend-i
, to recommend, register (a letter).

rekompenc-i
, to recompense, reward.

rekt-a
, straight, undeviating, direct.

rel-o
, rail.

religi-o
, religion.

rem-i
, to row.

rembur-i
, to upholster, stuff, pad.

renkont-i
(
trans.
), to meet.

renvers-i
(
trans.
), to upset.

reprezent-i
, to represent.

respekt-i
, to respect.

respond-i
, to answer.

respublik-o
, republic.

rest-i
, to remain, stay.

restoraci-o
, restaurant.

resum-i
, to summarize, give in resumé.

ret-o
, net, netting.

rev-i
, to indulge in revery, dream, fancy.

revu-o
, journal, review, magazine.

rezon-i
, to reason (exert the power of reasoning).

rezult-i
, to result.

ricev-i
, to receive.

riĉ-a
, rich.

rid-i
, to laugh (
265
).

rifuz-i
, to refuse.

rigard-i
, to look.

rigl-i
, to bolt (fasten).

rikolt-i
, to harvest, reap.

rilat-i
, to have relation (to) (
266
).

rimark-i
, to notice, note.

rimed-o
, means, way; vivrimedoj, means of livelihood.

rimen-o
, thong, strap.

ring-o
, ring.

rip-o
, rib.

ripar-i
, to mend, repair.

ripet-i
, to repeat.

ripoz-i
, to repose, rest.

riproĉ-i
, to reproach.

river-o
, river.

riz-o
, rice.

rob-o
, dress, robe.

Robert-o
, Robert.

romp-i
(
trans.
), to break.

rond-o
, circle, ring, round.

ros-o
, dew.

rost-i
, to roast.

roz-o
, rose (flower).

ruband-o
, ribbon.

rubus-o
, blackberry.

ruĝ-a
, red.

ruin-o
, ruin.

rul-i
(
trans.
), to roll (ball, etc.).

rus-o
, Russian.

rust-i
, to rust.

rutin-o
, routine.

ruz-a
, crafty, cunning, sly.

S.

S.

sabat-o
, Saturday.

sabl-o
, sand.

sag-o
, arrow.

saĝ-a
, wise.

sak-o
, sack, bag.

sal-o
, salt.

salajr-o
, salary, wages.

salat-o
, salad.

salon-o
, parlor, drawing-room.

salt-i
, to jump, leap.

salut-i
, to salute, greet.

sam-a
, same.

san-a
, healthy, well.

sang-o
, blood.

sankt-a
, sacred, holy.

sap-o
, soap.

sarden-o
, sardine.

sat-a
, sated; malsata, hungry.

saŭc-o
, sauce, gravy, dressing.

sav-i
, to save; rescue.

sci-i
, to know (
117
).

scienc-o
, science.

se
(
conj.
), if (
240
).

sed
(
conj.
), but.

seg-i
, to saw.

seĝ-o
, chair.

sek-a
, dry.

sekret-o
, secret.

sekretari-o
, secretary.

sekund-o
, second (of time).

sekv-i
, to follow.

sel-o
, saddle.

sem-o
, seed;
—i
, to sow.

semajn-o
, week.

sen
(
prep.
), without (
248
).

senat-o
, senate;
—ano
, senator.

senc-o
, sense, meaning.

send-i
, to send.

sent-i
, to feel, perceive.

sep
(
adj.
), seven (
136
).

septembr-o
, September.

serĉ-i
, to seek, hunt, look for.

serur-o
, lock.

serv-i
, to serve.

servic-o
, course (of a meal).

ses
(
adj.
), six (
136
).

sever-a
, severe, stern.

sezon-o
, season.

si
(
pronoun, reflexive
), himself, herself, etc. (
40, 44, 274
).

sibl-i
, to hiss, whistle (wind, etc.).

sid-i
, to sit (
239
).

sigel-i
, to seal.

sign-o
, sign, trace, mark.

signif-i
, to signify, mean.

silab-o
, syllable.

silent-i
, to be silent (
239
).

silk-o
, silk.

simi-o
, monkey.

simil-a
, like, similar.

simpl-a
, simple.

sinjor-o
, gentleman, Mr. (
163
).

Sirakuz-o
, Syracuse.

sitel-o
, pail, bucket.

skatol-o
, small box or case.

skiz-i
, to sketch.

sklav-o
, slave.

skot-o
, Scot, Scotchman.

skrap-i
, to scrape.

skrib-i
, to write.

sku-i
(
trans.
), to shake.

skulpt-i
, to carve, sculpture.

societ-o
, society.

soif-i
, to be thirsty.

sojl-o
, threshold.

Sokrat-o
, Socrates.

sol-a
, alone, sole, only.

soldat-o
, soldier.

solen-a
, formal, solemn.

somer-o
, summer.

son-i
(
intrans.
), to sound.

sonĝ-i
, to dream (in sleep).

sonor-i
(
intrans.
), to ring, sound;
—ilo
, bell.

sopir-i
, to yearn, long, sigh.

sorb-i
, to absorb;
—papero
, blotting-paper.

sorĉ-o
, witchcraft; ensorĉi, to bewitch;
—isto
, sorcerer.

sort-o
, destiny, fate, lot.

sovaĝ-a
, wild, savage.

spac-o
, space.

spec-o
, kind, sort, species.

special-a
, special.

specimen-o
, specimen, sample.

spegul-o
, mirror.

spert-a
, experienced, expert.

spes-o
, speso (international unit of money, 284).

spez-o
, clearing (financial); elspezi, to disburse, expend, spend; enspezi, to take in, receive (funds).

spinac-o
, spinach.

spir-i
, to breathe; elspiri, to exhale.

spite
(
prep.
), in spite of.

sprit-a
, witty.

staci-o
, station (railway, boat, etc.).

stamp-i
, to mark officially, stamp.

standard-o
, standard, flag.

stan-o
, tin (metal).

stang-o
, pole.

star-i
, to stand (
239
).

stat-o
, state (of being), condition.

stel-o
, star.

stenografi-o
, shorthand, stenography.

stil-o
, style.

stimul-i
, to stimulate.

stomak-o
, stomach.

strang-a
, strange, peculiar.

strat-o
, street.

streĉ-i
(
trans.
), to stretch.

strek-i
, to make a streak, or line; substreki, to underline; surstreki, trastreki, to cross off, strike out.

stri-o
, streak, stripe, band.

strik-o
, strike (of labor).

stud-i
, to study.

student-o
, student (college, etc.).

stuf-i
(
trans.
), to stew.

stump-o
, stump (of tree, etc.).

sub
(
prep.
), under, beneath (
121, 160
).

subit-a
, sudden, abrupt.

substanc-o
, substance.

sud-o
, south.

sufer-i
, to suffer, endure.

sufiĉ-i
, to suffice;
—ega
, abundant.

sufiks-o
, suffix.

sufok-i
(
trans.
), to suffocate.

sugesti-i
, to suggest.

suk-o
, sap, juice (of plants, etc.);
—a
, succulent.

sukces-i
, to succeed.

suker-o
, sugar.

sulfur-o
, sulphur.

sulk-o
, furrow, wrinkle.

sum-o
, sum, amount.

sun-o
, sun.

sup-o
, soup.

super
(
prep.
), above, over (
159
);
—a
, superior.

superstiĉ-o
, superstition.

supoz-i
, to suppose.

supr-e
(
adv.
), above;
—a
, upper, above;
—aĵo
, surface.

sur
(
prep.
), on, upon (
160
).

surd-a
, deaf.

surpriz-i
, to surprise.

surtut-o
, overcoat.

suspekt-i
, to suspect.

sved-o
, Swede.

sven-i
, to faint, swoon.

sving-i
(
trans.
), swing, brandish.

svis-o
, Swiss.

Ŝ.

Ŝ.

ŝaf-o
, sheep;
—aĵo
, mutton;
—ido
, lamb;
—idaĵo
, lamb (meat);
—viro
, ram.

ŝajn-i
, to seem, appear.

ŝal-o
, shawl.

ŝanc-o
, luck, chance; bonŝance, luckily.

ŝancel-i
(
trans.
), to oscillate, vacillate, make tremble.

ŝanĝ-i
(
trans.
), to change, alter.

ŝarĝ-i
, to burden, load.

ŝat-i
, to like, prize.

ŝaŭm-o
, foam, froth.

ŝel-o
, shell, peeling, bark.

ŝelk-o
, suspender, supporter.

ŝerc-i
, to joke, jest.

ŝi
(
pronoun
), she, her (
32, 37, 42
).

ŝild-o
, shield.

ŝink-o
, ham.

ŝip-o
, ship.

ŝir-i
, to tear.

ŝirm-i
, to shelter, shield;
—ilo
, screen.

ŝlim-o
, slime.

ŝlos-i
, to lock;
—ilo
, key.

ŝmir-i
, to anoint, smear.

ŝnur-o
, string.

ŝose-o
, broad roadway, drive.

ŝov-i
, to shove, push.

ŝovel-i
, to shovel.

ŝpar-i
, to spare, be economical of.

ŝpin-i
, to spin.

ŝpruc-i
, to gush, spout, spurt (of liquids).

ŝrank-o
, cupboard, wardrobe.

ŝraŭb-o
, screw.

ŝtal-o
, steel.

ŝtat-o
, state (political).

ŝtel-i
, to steal (
252
).

ŝtip-o
, log, block of wood.

ŝtof-o
, cloth, stuff.

ŝton-o
, stone.

ŝtop-i
, to stop up, cork;
—ilo
, stopper.

ŝtrump-o
, stocking.

ŝtup-o
, step, round;
—aro
, stair-case.

ŝu-o
, shoe; superŝuo, overshoe.

ŝuld-i
, to owe, be indebted.

ŝultr-o
, shoulder.

ŝut-o
, chute;
—i
, to pour (as in a chute).

ŝvel-i
, to swell, become swollen.

ŝvit-i
, to perspire.

T.

T.

tabak-o
, tobacco.

tabel-o
, table, index, tabulation.

tabl-o
, table (furniture).

tabul-o
, board, plank.

tag-o
, day;
—iĝo
, dawn;
—mezo
, noon.

tajlor-o
, tailor.

taks-i
, to estimate, value, rate.

talent-o
, talent.

tali-o
, waist; beltalia, shapely, having a good figure.

tambur-o
, drum.

tamen
(
conj.
), nevertheless, however, yet, still.

tantiem-o
, percentage of profit, royalty.

tapiŝ-o
, carpet.

tarif-o
, tariff, schedule of rates.

tas-o
, cup; subtaso, saucer.

task-o
, task.

taŭg-i
, to be fit for, good for.

tavol-o
, layer.

te-o
, tea.

teatr-o
, theatre;
—aĵo
, play.

ted-i
, to be tedious.

teg-i
, to cover, put a covering upon.

tegment-o
, roof.

teks-i
, to weave.

telefon-i
, to telephone.

telegraf-i
, to telegraph.

teler-o
, plate;
—meblo
, sideboard.

tem-o
, theme, subject.

temp-o
, time.

tempi-o
, temple (of the head).

templ-o
, temple (building).

ten-i
, to hold, keep.

tend-o
, tent.

tenor-o
, tenor (voice).

tent-i
, to tempt.

teori-o
, theory.

ter-o
, earth, soil; enterigi, to inter.

teras-o
, terrace.

teritori-o
, territory.

termin-o
, term, definition (word).

tern-i
, to sneeze.

terpom-o
, potato.

terur-o
, terror.

tia
, that kind of, such (
65
).

tial
(
adv.
), therefore (
78, 83
).

tiam
(
adv.
), then, at that time (
73
).

tibi-o
, shin bone, tibia;
—karno
, calf (of the leg).

tie
(
adv.
), there (
68
).

tiel
(
adv.
), thus, so (
88, 156
).

tigr-o
, tiger.

tikl-i
, to tickle.

tili-o
, linden.

tim-i
, to fear, be afraid of.

timon-o
, pole, tongue, shaft.

tint-i
, to jingle, tinkle.

tio
(
pronoun
), that (
233, 234
).

tiom
(
adv.
), that much, so much (
104, 164
).

tir-i
, to pull, draw.

tiran-o
, tyrant.

titol-o
, title.

tiu
(
pronoun
), that one, that (
56
); tiu ĉi, this one, this (
60
).

tost-o
, toast (sentiment).

tol-o
, linen.

toler-i
, to tolerate.

tomat-o
, tomato.

tomb-o
, tomb, grave.

ton-o
, tone.

tond-i
, to shear;
—ilo
, shears, scissors.

tondr-i
, to thunder.

tord-i
, to twist;
—a
, crooked, winding.

tra
(
prep.
), through (
46, 160
).

trab-o
, beam (wooden).

traduk-i
, to translate.

traf-i
, to reach, attain (that which was aimed at or sought); maltrafi, to miss.

trajt-o
, feature.

trakt-i
, to treat of (in essay, speech, etc.);
—ato
, treatise.

tram-o
, tram;
—vojo
, tramway, street-car line;
—veturilo
, street-car.

tranĉ-i
, to cut, sever.

trankvil-a
, serene, tranquil, calm.

trans
(
prep.
), across, the other side of (
160
).

tre
(
adv.
), very, very much.

trem-i
, to tremble.

tremp-i
, to drench, dip.

tren-i
, to drag, haul, draw;
—aĵo
, train (of a dress).

trezor-o
, treasure.

tri
(
adj.
), three (
136
).

trik-i
, to knit.

trink-i
, to drink.

tritik-o
, wheat.

triumf-o
, triumph.

tro
(
adv.
), too, too much.

tromp-i
, to deceive.

tron-o
, throne.

tropik-o
, tropic.

trot-i
, to trot.

trotuar-o
, sidewalk, pavement.

trov-i
, to find.

tru-o
, hole.

trud-i
, to force upon, impose; altrudema, importunate.

trunk-o
, trunk (of tree or body).

tualet-o
, toilet.

tub-o
, tube, pipe.

tuber-o
, bulb, knot, tuber.

tuj
(
adv.
), at once, immediately

tuk-o
, piece of cloth.

tur-o
, tower.

turk-o
, Turk.

turment-i
, to torment.

turn-i
(
trans.
), to turn.

tus-i
, to cough.

tuŝ-i
, to touch; kortuŝi, to touch (the heart of).

tut-a
, entire, whole, all.

U.

U.

-uj-
,
suffix indicating receptacle, that which bears or contains
(
181
).

-ul-
,
suffix indicating person characterized by that in the root
(
132
).

ulm-o
, elm.

-um-
, indefinite suffix (
268
).

ung-o
, nail (of finger);
—ego
, claw, talon.

univers-o
, universe.

universitat-o
, university.

unu
(
adj.
), one (
136, 137, 180
); unuiĝo, union.

uragan-o
, hurricane.

urb-o
, city; ĉefurbo, capital.

urĝ-i
, to be urgent or pressing.

urs-o
, bear.

Uson-o
, United States of America.

util-a
, useful.

uz-i
, to use; trouzi, to abuse.

V.

V.

vad-i
, to wade.

vafl-o
, waffle.

vag-i
, to wander, to roam;
—isto
, vagabond.

vagon-o
, car, railway carriage.

vak-i
, to be vacant.

vaks-o
, wax.

val-o
, valley.

valiz-o
, valise, satchel, bag.

valor-i
, to be worth.

vals-i
, to waltz.

van-a
, vain, fruitless.

vang-o
, cheek.

vant-a
, vain, conceited.

vapor-o
, steam, vapor.

varb-i
(
trans.
), to enlist, recruit.

varm-a
, warm.

vast-a
, vast, spacious, extensive.

vaz-o
, vase, basin.

ve!
(
interjection
), woe! ho ve! alas! (
273
).

veget-i
, to vegetate, grow (as plants).

vegetar-a
, vegetarian.

vejn-o
, vein.

vek-i
(
trans.
), to wake, awake.

vel-o
, sail.

velk-i
, to fade, wither, wilt.

velur-o
, velvet.

ven-i
, to come.

vend-i
, to sell.

vendred-o
, Friday.

venen-o
, poison.

venĝ-i
, to avenge.

venk-i
, to conquer, vanquish.

vent-o
, wind.

ver-o
, truth.

verand-o
, veranda, porch.

verd-a
, green.

verk-i
, to compose (music or literature).

verm-o
, worm.

vermiĉel-o
, vermicelli.

vers-o
, verse.

verŝ-i
, to pour (a liquid).

vertikal-a
, vertical.

vesper-o
, evening (
93
).

vest-i
, to clothe, dress.

veŝt-o
, vest, waistcoat.

vet-i
, to wager, bet.

veter-o
, weather.

vetur-i
, to ride, go (in vehicle, boat, etc.).

vi
(
pronoun
), you (
32, 37, 274
).

viand-o
, meat.

vibr-i
, to vibrate.

vic-o
, turn, place in a series; laŭvice, in turn; siavice, in his (her, its, their) turn; vicprezidanto, vice-president.

vid-i
, to see.

vidv-o
, widower;
—ino
, widow.

vigl-a
, alert, brisk.

vilaĝ-o
, village.

vin-o
, wine.

vinagr-o
, vinegar.

vinber-o
, grape; sekvinbero, raisin.

vintr-o
, winter.

viol-o
, violet.

violon-o
, violin.

vip-i
, to whip.

vir-o
, man

virt-o
, virtue.

viŝ-i
, to wipe.

vitr-o
, glass (material).

viv-i
, to live (
133
).

vizaĝ-o
, face, visage.

vizit-i
, to visit.

voĉ-o
, voice;
—doni
, to vote.

voj-o
, road, way.

vojaĝ-i
, to journey, travel, voyage.

vok-i
, to call.

vokal-o
, vowel.

vol-i
, to be willing, will, wish.

volont-e
, willingly.

volum-o
, volume (book).

volumen-o
, volume (of a body).

volv-i
, to roll (something around something).

vort-o
, word;
—aro
, dictionary.

vost-o
, tail.

vual-o
, veil.

vulgar-a
, common, vulgar.

vulp-o
, fox.

vund-i
, to wound.

Z.

Z.

zenit-o
, zenith.

zigzag-o
, zigzag.

zingibr-o
, ginger.

zink-o
, zinc.

zon-o
, girdle, belt, zone.

zoologi-o
, zoology.

zorg-i
, to care (for), be anxious (about).

zum-i
, to hum, buzz.


ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

The following vocabulary includes all Esperanto roots used in the preceding lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number of additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt has been made, however, to include all of the roots of the language, or their various English meanings, for which an English-Esperanto Dictionary should be consulted.

The vocabulary below includes all the Esperanto roots used in the previous lessons, all the main words of the language, and many extra roots (to help with original writing). However, there has been no attempt to include all the roots of the language or their different English meanings, for which an English-Esperanto Dictionary should be referenced.

References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. For other parts of speech than those indicated, see Word Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171, also the references under Prefixes and Suffixes in the Index. For formation of compound words other than those given, see 160, 167, 176, 184. The following abbreviations are used: adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive; — = repetition of the English word.

References are to sections unless a page number (p.) is provided. For other parts of speech not listed, see Word Formation, 116, 120, 159, 171, and also check the references under Prefixes and Suffixes in the Index. For the formation of compound words not included, see 160, 167, 176, 184. The following abbreviations are used: adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive; — = repetition of the English word.

A.

A.

abandon
, forlas-i.

abash
, hontig-i.

(be) able
, pov-i (
72
).

abominable
, abomen-a.

about
(
prep.
), ĉirkaŭ; (
concerning
) pri; (
adv.
), (approximately, proksimum-e.

above
(
prep.
), super (
159
); (
adv.
), supr-e; ĉi supre.

abrupt
, subit-a.

absorb
, sorb-i.

abundant
, sufiĉeg-a.

academy
, akademi-o.

accelerate
(
trans.
), akcel-i.

accent
, akcent-o.

accept
, akcept-i.

accident
, akcident-o; (
chance
) okaz-o.

accompany
, akompan-i.

(in) accordance with
(
prep.
), laŭ (
191
).

account
, kont-o; (
bill
) kalkul-o; (
story
) rakont-o.

(on) account of
(
prep.
), pro (
86
).

accurate
, akurat-a.

accusative
, akuzativ-o.

accuse
, akuz-i, kulpig-i.

accustomed
, familiar-a, kutimit-a.

ache
, dolor-o.

acid
, acid-o.

(be) acquainted with
, kon-i (
117
);
become —
, konatiĝ-i. acquire, akir-i.

across
(
prep.
), trans.

act
, ag-i;
—on
, efik-i; (
behave
) kondut-i; (
of play
) akt-o.

active
, agema; (
grammatical
), aktiv-a.

actor
, aktor-o.

actual
, efektiv-a, ver-a.

acute
, akr-a.

add
, aldon-i (
160
).

address
(
on letters, etc.
) adres-o; (
lecture
) parolad-o.

adequate
, sufiĉ-a.

adjacent
, apud-a (
159
).

adjective
, adjektiv-o.

administer
(
manage
), administr-i.

admire
, admir-i.

admit
, konfes-i; (
let in
) allas-i.

admonish
, admon-i.

adore
, ador-i.

adorn
, ornam-i.

adverb
, adverb-o.

advantage
, util-o, profit-o.

advertise
, reklam-i.

advise
, konsil-i.

affable
, afabl-a.

affair
, afer-o;
regrettable —
, domaĝ-o.

affirmative
, jes-a (
171
).

(be) afraid
, tim-i.

Africa
, Afrik-o.

after
(
prep.
), post (
89
).

afternoon
, posttagmez-o.

again
, denov-e, re-e (
223
).

against
(
prep.
), kontraŭ.

age
, aĝ-o;
of —
, plenaĝ-a;
old —
, maljunec-o.

(give an) agency
, komisi-i.

agent
, agent-o.

agitate
, agit-i.

agony
, agoni-o.

agree
, konsent-i; (
contract
) kontrakt-i.

agreeable
, agrabl-a.

aid
, help-i.

aim at
, cel-i.

air
, aer-o;
to —
, aerum-i; (
music
) ari-o.

alas!
, ho ve (
273
).

alcohol
, alkohol-o.

alcove
, alkov-o.

alert
, vigl-a.

Alexander
, Aleksandr-o.

Alexandria
, Aleksandri-o.

Alfred
, Alfred-o.

algebra
, algebr-o.

alive
, viv-a.

all
(
pronoun and adj.
), ĉiuj (
173
); (
indefinite pronoun
) ĉio (
233
); (
adv. of quantity
) ĉiom (
194
); (
whole, entire
) tut-a.

alliance
, lig-o.

allow
, permes-i.

allude
, alud-i.

allure
, log-i.

almanac
, almanak-o.

almost
(
adv.
), preskaŭ.

alms
, almoz-o.

alone
, sol-a.

along
(
prep.
), laŭ (
191
);
— with
, kune kun.

aloud
, laŭt-e.

alphabet
, alfabet-o.

already
(
adv.
), jam.

also
(
adv.
), ankaŭ.

altar
, altar-o.

alter
(
trans.
), ŝanĝ-i, aliig-i.

although
(
conj.
), kvankam.

always
(
adv.
), ĉiam (
187
).

America
, Amerik-o.

amiable
, afabl-a, amind-a.

amid
, meze de, inter (
85
).

among
(
prep.
), inter (
85
).

amount
, sum-o, kvant-o;
a certain —
, iom (
217
).

amphibious
, amfibi-a.

amphitheatre
, amfiteatr-o.

amuse
, amuz-i.

analyse
, analiz-i.

ancestor
, prapatr-o (
282
).

anchor
, ankr-o.

ancient
, antikv-a.

and
(
conj.
), kaj (
26
).

anecdote
, anekdot-o.

anew
, denov-e.

angel
, anĝel-o.

angle
, angul-o.

angry
, koler-a.

animal
, best-o.

ankle
, maleol-o.

announce
, anonc-i.

annoy
, ĉagren-i.

anoint
, ŝmir-i.

answer
, respond-i.

ant
, formik-o.

antelope
, antilop-o.

antipathy
, antipati-o.

antique
, antikv-a.

anvil
, ambos-o.

anxious
, maltrankvil-a.

any
(
pronoun and adj.
), iu (
203
); (
adv. of quantity
) iom (
217
);
—kind
,
—time
,
—thing
, etc., see table, 235.

any more
(
adv.
), plu.

apartment
, apartament-o.

apathy
, apati-o.

apologise
, pardonon pet-i.

apology
(
defence
), apologi-o.

apparatus
, aparat-o.

appear
(
come in sight
), aper-i; (
seem
) ŝajn-i.

appearance
(
aspect
), aspekt-o, mien-o, vidiĝ-o.

appetite
, apetit-o.

applaud
, aplaŭd-i.

apple
, pom-o.

apply
(
put on
), almet-i;
— to
(
for information, etc.
), sin turni al.

approach
, alproksimiĝ-i al.

appropriate
, proprigi al si; (
suitable
), konven-a, dec-a.

approve
, aprob-i.

approximate
, proksimum-a.

apricot
, abrikot-o.

April
, april-o.

apron
, antaŭtuk-o.

aquarium
, akvari-o.

Arab
, arab-o;
street —
, bub-o.

arbitrate
, arbitraci-i.

arbor
, laŭb-o.

arc
, ark-o.

arcade
, arkad-o.

archer
, pafarkist-o.

Archimedes
, Arĥimed-o.

architecture
, arĥitektur-o.

arena
, aren-o.

argue
, argument-i.

Aristeides
, Aristejd-o.

aristocrat
, aristokrat-o.

Aristotle
, Aristotel-o.

arithmetic
, aritmetik-o.

arm
(
of the body
), brak-o; (
weapon
) armil-o.

army
, arme-o.

aroma
, arom-o.

around
(
prep.
), ĉirkaŭ (
89, 160
).

arouse
, incit-i, vek-i.

arrange
, aranĝ-i.

arrest
, arest-i.

arrive
, alven-i.

arrogant
, arogant-a.

arrow
, sag-o.

art
, art-o.

Arthur
, Artur-o.

article
(
grammatical, literary
) artikol-o.

artificial
, artefarit-a.

artless
, naiv-a.

as
(
adv.
) kiel; as ... as ... tiel ... kiel ... (
156
);
— if
,
— though
, kvazaŭ (
250
);
— far as
, ĝis (prep., 46);
— much ... as ...
, tiom ... kiom (
164
).

ascertain
, certiĝ-i;
— the truth of
, konstat-i.

(be) ashamed
, hont-i.

ashes
, cindr-o.

Asia
, Azi-o.

aside from
(
prep.
), krom.

ask
(
inquire
), demand-i; (
request
), pet-i.

asparagus
, asparag-o.

aspect
, aspekt-o, mien-o.

ass
, azen-o.

assemble
, kunven-i, kunvok-i.

assist
, help-i.

association
(
organization
), asoci-o.

assurance
, aplomb-o, certigo.

at
(
prep.
), ĉe (
125, 160
), je (
260
);
— the rate of
, po (
175
).

athlete
, atlet-o.

atmosphere
, atmosfer-o.

attack
, atak-i.

attain
, ating-i, traf-i.

attempt
, prov-i.

attentive
, atent-a.

attest
, atest-i.

attribute
, atribut-o.

August
, aŭgust-o.

Australia
, Aŭstrali-o.

author
, aŭtor-o, verkist-o.

automatic
, aŭtomat-a.

autumn
, aŭtun-o.

avaricious
, avar-a.

avenge
, venĝ-i.

avenue
, ale-o, bulvard-o.

avoid
, evit-i.

awake
(
trans.
), vek-i.

away
(
adv.
), for (
71
); (
distant
), malproksim-e (
170
).

axe
, hakil-o.

axis
(
axle
), aks-o.

B.

B.

babble
, babil-i.

baby
, infanet-o.

bachelor
, fraŭl-o;
— of arts (A.B.)
, abiturient-o.

back
(
of the body
), dors-o; to the rear (
adv.
), malantaŭen (
121
).

bacon
, lard-o.

bag
, sak-o, valiz-o.

bagatelle
, bagatel-o.

bake
(
trans.
), bak-i.

balance
(
trans.
), balanc-i; (
scales
), pesil-o.

ball
(
to play with
), pilk-o; (
dance
), bal-o; (
globe
), glob-o.

banana
, banan-o.

band
(
stripe
), stri-o; (
music
), orkestr-o; (
group
), ar-o (
126
).

bandage
, bandaĝ-i.

banish
, ekzil-i.

bank
(
financial
), bank-o; (
shore
), bord-o.

(become) bankrupt
, bankrot-i

banner
, flag-o, standard-o.

banquet
, festen-o.

bar
, bar-i.

barbarian
, barbar-o.

bare
, nud-a.

bark
(
of trees
), ŝel-o; (
of dogs
), boj-i.

barrel
, barel-o;
— organ
, gurd-o.

barren
, senfrukt-a.

barrister
, advokat-o.

barytone
, bariton-o.

base
(
foundation
), fundament-o, baz-o; (
ignoble
), malnobl-a.

basin
, vaz-o, kuv-o.

basket
, korb-o.

bass
(
voice
), bas-o.

bathe
(
trans.
), ban-i.

battle
, batal-i.

be
, est-i (
109
).

beak
, bek-o.

beam
(
wooden
), trab-o; (
light
), radi-o.

bean
(
leguminous fruit
), fab-o; (
garden bean
), fazeol-o.

bear
(
animal
), urs-o; (
carry
), port-i; (
endure
), elport-i, sufer-i; (
produce, give birth to
), nask-i.

beard
, barb-o.

beast
, best-o.

beat
, bat-i; (
surpass
), super-i, venk-i.

beautiful
, bel-a.

because
(
conj.
), ĉar (
83
), tial ke (
83
);
— of
(
prep.
), pro (
86
).

become
, iĝ-i, fariĝ-i (
232
); (
be suitable
), konven-i, dec-i.

bed
, lit-o.

bee
, abel-o.

beef
, bovaĵ-o (227, c).

beefsteak
, bifstek-o.

beet
, bet-o.

before
(
prep.
), antaŭ (
89, 90, 120, 159, 160
); (
conj.
), antaŭ ol (
97, 98
); (
adv.
), antaŭe, ĵus antaŭe.

beg
(request), pet-i; (ask alms), almozon pet-i.

beggar
, almozul-o.

begin
(
trans.
), komenc-i (
see also prefix
ek-, 206).

behave
, kondut-i.

behind
(
prep.
), post.

behold
, rigard-i, vid-i; (
adv.
), jen (
228
).

Belgian
, belg-o.

believe
, kred-i (
265
).

bell
, sonoril-o.

belong
, aparten-i.

below
(
prep.
), sub; (
adv.
), sub-e, malsupr-e.

belt
, zon-o.

bench
, benk-o.

bend
(
trans.
), klin-i, fleks-i.

benevolence
, bonfar-o.

berry
, ber-o.

beside
(
prep.
), krom; (near), apud; (
at the side of
), flanke de.

bet
, vet-i.

betray
, perfid-i.

betrothed
(
man
), fianĉ-o.

between
(
prep.
), inter (
85, 89
).

bewitch
, ensorĉ-i.

beyond
(
prep.
), preter.

bicycle
, bicikl-o.

bid
(
order
), ordon-i;
— farewell
, adiaŭ-i.

big
, grand-a.

bill
(
of bird
), bek-o;
bank —
, bankbilet-o;
hand—
, afiŝ-o; (
reckoning
), kalkul-o.

bind
(
fasten
), lig-i; (
wounds
), bandaĝ-i.

bird
, bird-o.

biscuit
, biskvit-o; (
ring-shaped
), kring-o.

bit
(
piece
), pec-o; (
adv.
), iom (
217
).

bite
, mord-i.

black
, nigr-a;
to —
(
shoes, etc.
), cir-i.

blackberry
, rubus-o.

blackbird
, merl-o.

blacking
, cir-o.

blade
(
of knife, etc.
), kling-o.

bleat
, blek-i.

bless
, ben-i.

blind
, blind-a.

block
(
of wood
), stip-o.

blood
, sang-o.

bloom
, flor-i (
116
).

blot
(
spot
), makul-o.

blotter
, sorbil-o, sorbpaper-o.

blouse
, bluz-o, kitel-o.

blow
, blov-i; (
stroke
), bat-o.

blue
, blu-a;
—ish
, dubeblu-a.

blush
, ruĝiĝ-i.

board
(
plank
), tabul-o; (
food
), nutrad-o.

boast
, fanfaron-i.

boat
, boat-o, ŝipet-o.

body
, korp-o.

boil
(
intrans.
), bol-i (
275
).

bolt
(
fasten
), rigl-i.

bonbon
, bombon-o.

bond
(
fastening
), ligil-o.

bone
, ost-o.

book
, libr-o;
note—
,
copy—
, kajer-o.

boot
, bot-o.

border
(
edge
), rand-o.

bore
(
holes
), bor-i; (
weary
), enuig-i.

(be) born
, naskiĝ-i.

borrow
, pruntepren-i.

Boston
, Boston-o.

both
(
pronoun and adj.
), ambaŭ (
238
); (
adv.
), kaj (
26
).

bottle
, botel-o.

bottom
, fund-o, malsupr-o.

bough
, branĉ-o.

boulevard
, bulvard-o.

boundary
, lim-o.

bouquet
, buked-o.

bow
(
of ribbon
), bant-o; (
for shooting
), pafark-o.

bow
(
bend
), kliniĝ-i, salut-i.

box
, kest-o;
small —
, skatol-o.

boy
, knab-o.

bracket
(
shelf
), bret-o.

brag
, fanfaron-i.

braid
, plekt-i.

brain
, cerb-o.

branch
(
of tree
), branĉ-o; (
of work or study
), fak-o.

brandish
, sving-i.

brandy
, brand-o.

brave
, brav-o.

bread
, pan-o.

break
(
trans
)., romp-i;
— to pieces
, frakas-i.

breakfast
, matenmanĝ-o.

breathe
, spir-i.

brick
, brik-o.

bridge
, pont-o.

bridle
, brid-o.

bright
(
clear
), hel-a.

bring
, alport-i;
— forth
(
produce
), nask-i;
— up
(
educate
), eduk-i.

brisk
, vigl-a.

Briton
, Brit-o.

broad
, larĝ-a.

brochure
, broŝur-o.

bronze
, bronz-o.

brood
(
birds
), kov-i.

brother
, frat-o.

brown
, brun-a.

brownie
, kobold-o.

bruise
, kontuz-i.

brush
, bros-i.

brute
, brut-o.

bucket
, sitel-o.

buckle
, buk-o.

bud
, burĝon-o.

build
, konstru-i.

bulb
, tuber-o, bulb-o.

Bulgarian
, Bulgar-o.

bull
, bovvir-o.

bullet
, kugl-o.

bunch
, fask-o.

bundle
, fask-o, pakaĵ-o.

bungle
, fuŝ-i.

burden
, ŝarĝ-i.

burn
(
intrans.
), brul-i (
275
).

burst
(
intrans.
), krev-i.

bury
, enterig-i.

but
(
conj.
), sed; (
prep.
), krom.

butcher
, buĉ-i.

butter
, buter-o.

butterfly
, papili-o.

button
, buton-o;
to —
, butonum-i.

buy
, aĉet-i.

buzz
, zum-i.

by
(
prep.
), per (
64
); de (
169, 170
); (
past
), preter; (
according to
), laŭ (
191
).

C.

C.

cab
, fiakr-o.

cabbage
, brasik-o.

cage
, kaĝ-o.

cake
, kuk-o.

calculate
, kalkul-i.

caldron
, kaldron-o.

calendar
, kalendar-o.

calf
, bovid-o; (
of the leg
), tibikarn-o.

call
, vok-i; (
visit
), vizit-i.

calling
(
profession
), profesi-o.

calm
, kviet-a, trankvil-a.

camel
, kamel-o.

camera
, kamer-o.

can
(be able), pov-i (
72
); (
preserve fruit, etc.
), konfit-i.

candle
, kandel-o.

candy
, kand-o.

canoe
, kanot-o.

cap
, ĉap-o.

capable
, kapabl-a.

capital
(
money
), kapital-o; (
excellent
), boneg-a; (
city
), ĉefurb-o.

capitol
, kapitol-o.

car
, vagon-o.

card
, kart-o;
visiting —
, vizitkart-o.

care
(
for
), zorg-i (pri).

caress
, dorlot-i, kares-i.

carpet
, tapiŝ-o.

carriage
, kaleŝ-o, veturil-o.

carrot
, karot-o.

carry
, port-i.

carve
, skulpt-i.

case
(
small box
), skatol-o; (
chest
), kest-o; (
legal
), proces-o; (
holder
), uj-o (
181
), ing-o (
237
); (
occasion
), okaz-o; (
grammatical
), kaz-o.

cashier
, kasist-o.

cascade
, kaskad-o.

cast
, ĵet-i.

castle
, kastel-o.

cat
, kat-o.

catch
, kapt-i.

cattle
, brut-o, brutar-o.

cauliflower
, florbrasik-o.

cause
, ig-i (
214
); (
produce a result
), kaŭz-i; (
motive
), kial-o; tial-o; (
espoused or advocated
), afer-o; (
legal
), proces-o.

caution
, avert-i.

cavity
, kav-o.

cease
(
intrans.
), ĉes-i.

ceiling
, plafon-o.

celebrate
, fest-i, solenig-i;
—ed
, fama.

celery
, celeri-o.

cellar
, kel-o.

cent
, cend-o.

center
, centr-o.

centigram
, centigram-o (
284
).

centiliter
, centilitr-o (
284
).

centimeter
, centimetr-o (
284
).

certain
, cert-a;
a —
(
one
), iu (
pronoun and adj.
, 203);
— amount, etc.
,
see table
, 235.

certainly
, nepr-e, cert-e, ja (
215
).

certify
, atest-i, certig-i, konstat-i.

chain
, ĉen-o; (
fetter
), katen-o; (
of mountains
), montar-o.

chair
, seĝ-o.

(be) chairman
, prezid-i.

chalk
, kret-o.

chance
, ŝanc-o; (
hazard
), hazard-o; (
opportunity
), okazo.

change
(
trans.
), ŝanĝ-i; (
coins
), moner-oj.

chapel
, kapel-o.

chapter
, ĉapitr-o.

character
, karakter-o.

charge
(
commission
), komisi-o; (
burden
), ŝarĝ-o; (
price, cost
), prez-o, kost-o.

charm
, ĉarm-i.

chase
(
game, etc.
), ĉas-i; (
drive off
), forpel-i.

chatter
, babil-i.

check
(
on bank
), ĉek-o.

cheek
, vang-o.

cheese
, fromaĝ-o.

chemise
, ĉemiz-o.

chemistry
, ĥemi-o.

chemist's shop
, apotek-o.

cheque
, ĉek-o.

cherry
, ĉeriz-o.

chest
(
box
), kest-o; (
with a lid
), kofr-o.

chestnut
, kaŝtan-o.

chew
, maĉ-i.

chief
, ĉef-a, precip-a; (
leader
), estr-o (
253
).

child
, infan-o, id-o (
207
).

chimney
, kamen-o.

chin
, menton-o.

china
(
porcelain
), porcelan-o; (
country
), Ĥinuj-o.

Chinaman
, ĥin-o.

chirp
, pep-i.

chocolate
, ĉokolad-o.

choir
, ĥor-o.

choose
, elekt-i.

chop
, hak-i; (
cutlet
), kotlet-o.

chrestomathy
, krestomati-o.

Christ
, Krist-o.

church
(
building
), preĝej-o.

chute
, ŝut-o.

cigar
, cigar-o.

cigarette
, cigared-o.

cinnamon
, cinam-o.

cipher
, cifer-o.

circle
, cirkl-o, rond-o.

circular
(
letter, etc.
), cirkuler-o.

circumstance
, okaz-o, detal-o, cirkonstanc-o.

citizen
, regnan-o, urban-o.

city
, urb-o.

civilise
, civiliz-i.

clack
, krak-i.

claim
, pretend-i.

clamber
, ramp-i.

clap
(
trans.
), klak-i.

class
, klas-o.

clatter
, (
trans.
), klak-i.

claw
, ungeg-o.

clay
, argil-o.

clean
, pur-a.

clear
(
bright
), hela; (
distinct
), klar-a.

clearing
(
financial
), spez-o.

clergyman
, pastr-o.

clerk
, komiz-o.

clever
, lert-a.

climate
, klimat-o.

climb up
, grimp-i, supren ramp-i.

cloak
, mantel-o.

clock
, horloĝ-o.

close
(
trans.
), ferm-i; (
dense
), dens-a;
— to
(
prep.
), apud; proksim-e de (
170
).

cloth
(
in general
), ŝtof-o; (woollen, etc.), drap-o; (
piece of
), tuk-o;
table—
, tablotuk-o.

clothe
, vest-i.

cloud
, nub-o.

club
(
organization
), klub-o; (
weapon
), bastoneg-o.

coal
, karb-o.

coat
, vest-o; (
short
), jak-o; (
frock
), redingot-o;
over—
, surtut-o.

cock
(
fowl
), kok-o.

coffee
, kaf-o.

collect
(
trans.
), kolekt-i.

college
, kolegi-o.

colonel
, kolonel-o.

color
, kolor-o.

column
, kolon-o.

comb
, komb-i.

come
, ven-i.

comedy
, komedi-o.

comfort
(
console
), konsol-i; (
freedom from pain, etc.
), komfort-o.

command
, ordon-i; (
military and naval
), komand-i.

commerce
, komerc-o.

commission
(
entrusted
), komisi-o; (
percentage of profit
), tantiem-o, komisipag-o.

committee
, komitat-o.

common
(
general
), ĝeneral-a; (
mutual
), komun-a; (
vulgar
), vulgar-a.

communicate
, komunik-i.

company
(
commercial
), kompanio; (
guests
), gastar-o; (
presence
), ĉeest-o.

compare
(
trans.
), kompar-i (
266
).

compassion
, kompat-o.

compete
, konkur-i.

competition
, konkurad-o; (
for prizes
), konkurs-o; (
in business
), konkurenc-o.

complain
, plend-i.

complicate
, komplik-i.

compose
(
music or literature
), verk-i.

compositor
(
of type
), kompostist-o.

conceal
, kaŝ-i (
252
).

concern
, koncern-i (
266
); (
anxiety
), maltrankvilec-o.

concerning
(
prep.
), pri. (264, c).

concert
(
musical
), koncert-o.

condemn
, kondamn-i.

condition
, cirkonstanc-o; (
stipulation
), kondiĉ-o; (
state
), stat-o.

conduct
(
lead
), konduk-i;
— oneself
(
behave
), kondut-i.

conduct
(
behavior
), kondut-o; (
in regard to right or wrong
), mor-o.

conductor
(
of car, etc.
), konduktor-o.

confess
, konfes-i.

confide
, konfid-i.

conform
, konform-i (
266
).

confound
(
confuse
), konfuz-i.

congratulate
, gratul-i.

congress
, kongres-o.

conquer
, venk-i.

conscience
, konscienc-o.

(be) conscious
, konsci-i.

consent
, konsent-i.

consequently
, sekv-e, do; tial (
78
).

(be) conservative
, konservativ-a.

consist
, konsist-i.

console
, konsol-i.

consonant
(
letter
), konsonant-o.

conspire
, konspir-i.

constant
, konstant-a.

constitution
, konstituci-o.

consul
, konsul-o.

consult
, konsult-i, pet-i konsilon de.

contaminate
, infekt-i.

content
, kontent-a.

continent
(
land
), kontinent-o.

continue
, daŭr-i, daŭrig-i.

contour
, kontur-o.

contract
(
commercial and legal
), kontrakt-i.

contralto
, kontralt-o.

contrary
, mal-o (
67
); kontraŭstarem-a.

control
, kontrol-i; (
govern
), reg-i.

convenient
, konven-a, oportun-a.

convince
, konvink-i.

cook
, kuir-i.

copper
, kupr-o.

copy
, kopi-i; (
of a book, etc.
), ekzempler-o.

coquettish
, koket-a.

cork
, ŝtop-i; (
bark of cork tree
), kork-o.

corner
, angul-o.

corporal
, corporeal, korp-a.

corps
(
military
), korpus-o.

corpse
, kadavr-o.

correct
, korekt-i; (
right
), prav-a.

correspond
, korespond-i.

corridor
, koridor-o.

cost
, kost-i.

costume
, kostum-o.

cotton
, koton-o.

cough
, tus-i.

counsel
, konsil-i.

count
, kalkul-i, sum-i, nombr-i; (
person
), graf-o.

county
, grafland-o.

country
, land-o; (
as opposed to city
), kampar-o.

coupon
, kupon-o.

(be) courageous
, kuraĝ-i.

course
(
of lessons
), kurs-o; (
of a meal
), servic-o;
of —
, kompreneble;
in the — of
, en la daŭro de.

court
, kort-o, korteg-o, juĝej-o.

courteous
, ĝentil-a.

courtesy
, ĝentilec-o; (
kindness
), komplez-o.

cousin
, kuz-o.

cover
, kovr-i; (
put covering upon
), teg-i.

crab
, krab-o.

crack
(
split
) (
trans.
), fend-i; (
crackle
), krak-i; (
burst open
) (
intrans.
), krev-i.

cradle
, lulil-o.

crafty
, ruz-a.

cravat
, kravat-o.

crawl
, ramp-i.

crazy
, frenez-a.

cream
, krem-o.

create
, kre-i.

creep
, ramp-i;
— up
, grimp-i.

crime
, krim-o.

crippled
, kripl-a.

criticise
, kritik-i.

crooked
, tord-a, malrekt-a, kurb-a.

cross
, kruc-o; (
angry
), koler-a;
— off
, trastrek-i.

crowd
, amas-o, anar-o (
145, 126
).

crown
, kron-o.

crucify
, krucum-i.

cruel
, kruel-a.

crush
, pist-i, premeg-i.

crust
, krust-o.

cry
(
weep
), plor-i; (
shout
), kri-i; (
of animals
), blek-i.

cucumber
, kukum-o.

cultivate
, kultur-i;
— the soil
, terkultur-i.

cunning
, ruz-a.

cup
, tas-o; (
goblet
), pokal-o.

cupboard
, ŝrank-o.

curious
(
odd
), kurioz-a; (
inquisitive
), scivol-a.

curl
(
of hair
), bukl-o.

curtain
, kurten-o.

curve
, kurb-o.

cushion
, kusen-o.

custom
, kutim-o; (
tax
), impost-o.

cut
, tranĉ-i; (
of a garment
), fason-o.

cutlet
, kotlet-o.

cylinder
, cilindr-o.

Cyrus
, Cirus-o.

D.

D.

dabble
(
a liquid
), plaŭd-i.

dainty
, delikat-a.

damage
, difekt-i.

Damocles
, Damokl-o.

Dane
, dan-o.

danger
, danĝer-o.

dance
, danc-i.

date
(
fruit
), daktil-o; (
time
), dat-o.

dawn
, tagiĝ-o.

day
, tag-o.

deaf
, surd-a.

dear
(
prized
), kar-a; (
expensive
), multekost-a.

debase
(
adulterate
), fals-i; (
make bad
), malbonig-i.

decay
(
mould
), ŝim-o; (
in health
), kaduk-i.

deceive
, tromp-i.

December
, decembr-o.

decide
, decid-i.

decigram
, decigram-o (
284
).

deciliter
, decilitr-o (
284
).

decimeter
, decimetr-o (
284
).

deck (of ship)
, ferdek-o; (
adorn
), ornam-i.

declaim
, deklam-i.

deep
, profund-a.

deer
, cerv-o.

defend
, defend-i.

define
, defin-i, priskrib-i.

degree
, grad-o.

dekagram
, dekagram-o (
284
).

dekaliter
, dekalitr-o (
284
).

dekameter
, dekametr-o (
284
).

delay
, prokrast-i.

delegate
, deleg-i.

delicate
, delikat-a.

delightful
, ĉarm-a, plaĉeg-a.

deliver (supply)
, liver-i; (
set free
), liberig-i.

delusion
, iluzi-o.

demand
, postul-i.

dense
, dens-a.

deny
, ne-i (
171
).

department (of work, etc.)
, fak-o.

desert
, dezert-o; (
just reward
), merit-o.

deserve
, merit-i.

desire
, dezir-i.

desk
, pupitr-o, skribtabl-o.

dessert
, desert-o.

destine
, destin-i; difin-i.

destiny
, destin-o; (
lot
), sort-o.

destroy
, detru-i, neniig-i.

detail
, detal-o.

dew
, ros-o.

diamond
, diamant-o.

dictionary
, vortar-o.

dictate (letters)
, dikt-i.

die
, mort-i.

different
, divers-a, malsam-a, diferenc-a.

differentiate
, diferencig-i.

dig
, fos-i.

dignity (rank)
, rang-o.

diligent
, diligent-a.

dimension
, dimensio; (
size
), ampleks-o.

Diogenes
, Diogen-o.

dip (in liquid)
, tremp-i.

diploma
, diplom-o;
holder of —
, diplomit-o.

diplomat
, diplomat-o.

direct (guide)
, direkt-i; (
undeviating
), rekt-a.

disburse
, elspez-i, elpag-i.

discount
, rabat-i.

discuss
, diskut-i, priparol-i.

disdain
, malŝat-i, malestim-i.

dish (flat)
, plad-o.

dispatch (letter)
, depeŝ-o.

distance
, distanc-o.

distinct
, klar-a.

distinguish
, disting-i.

distract (the attention)
, distr-i; (
confuse
), konfuz-i.

disturb
, ĝen-i, maltrankvilig-i.

diverse
, divers-a.

divide
(
trans.
), divid-i.

do
, far-i; (
suffice
), sufiĉ-i.

doctor
, doktor-o; (
medical
), kuracist-o.

dog
, hund-o.

doll
, pup-o.

dollar
, dolar-o.

donkey
, azen-o.

door
, pord-o;
—handle,
ans-o.

doubt
, dub-i.

down (hair or feathers)
, lanug-o; (
downward
) (
adv.
), malsupren.

dove
, kolomb-o.

drag
(
trans.
), tren-i.

draw (pull)
, tir-i; (
sketch
), skiz-i.

drawer
, tirkest-o.

drawing-room
, salon-o.

dream (in sleep)
, sonĝ-i; (
fancy
), rev-i.

drench
, tremp-i.

dress
, vest-i (sin); (
frock
), rob-o;
—suit
, frak-o.

dressing (sauce)
, saŭc-o.

drink
, trink-i.

drip
, gut-i.

drive (off)
, pel-i; (
vehicle
), veturig-i; (
roadway
), ŝose-o.

drown
(
intrans.
), dron-i.

drug
, drog-o;
—store
, apotek-o.

drum
, tambur-o.

dry
, sek-a.

duck
, anas-o.

dues
, kotizaĵ-o;
pay —
, kotiz-i.

dumb
, mut-a;
— animal
, brut-o.

during
(
prep.
), dum (
96
); en la daŭro de-.

dusk
, krepusk-o.

dust
, polv-o;
remove the —
, senpolvig-i.

duty
, dev-o;
be on —
, deĵor-i.

dwell
, loĝ-i.

E.

E.

each
(
adj. and pronoun
), ĉiu (
173
).

eager
, avid-a.

eagle
, agl-o.

ear (of the body)
, orel-o.

early
, fru-a.

earth
, ter-o; (
the planet
), terglob-o.

east
, orient-o.

Easter
, Pask-o.

easy
, facil-a.

eat
, manĝ-i.

echo
, eĥ-o.

economical
, ŝparem-a.

edge
, rand-o; (
of rivers, etc.
), bord-o.

edit
, redakt-i.

editor
, redaktor-o.

editorial body
, redakci-o.

educate
, (
rear
), eduk-i; (
teach
), instru-i.

effect
, efekt-o.

effective
, efektiv-a.

(be) efficacious
, efik-i.

egg
, ov-o.

Egypt
, Egipt-o.

eight
(
adj.
), ok (
136
).

either
(
pronoun and adj.
), iu (
203
); ĉiu (
173
); unu aŭ la alia; (
adv.
), aŭ;
on — side
(
adv.
), ambaŭflanke (
238
).

elbow
, kubut-o.

electric
, elektr-a.

elk
, alk-o.

elm
, ulm-o.

eloquent
, elokvent-a.

embroider
, brod-i.

eminent
, eminent-a.

empire
, imperi-o.

employ
(
hire
), dung-i;
— oneself
, sin okupi; (
use
), uz-i.

employee
, komiz-o, dungit-o, oficist-o.

employment
, ofic-o, okupad-o.

enchant
, ensorĉ-i, rav-i.

encore
(
adv.
), bis.

end
(
trans.
), fin-i.

endow
, dot-i.

endure
, sufer-i, elport-i.

engineer
, inĝenier-o.

Englishman
, angl-o.

enjoy
, ĝu-i;
— oneself
, sin amuz-i.

enlightened
, kler-a.

enlist
(
trans.
), varb-i.

enroll
(
trans.
), registr-i, varb-i.

enthusiasm
, entuziasm-o.

entire
, tut-a.

entrust
, komisii, alkonfid-i.

envelope
(
of letter
), kovert-o.

envy
, envi-i.

(be an) epicure
, frand-i.

epoch
, epok-o.

equal
, egal-a.

err
, erar-i.

establish
, establ-i, fond-i; (
prove, etc.
), konstat-i.

estate
, bien-o.

esteem
, estim-i.

estimate
, taks-i.

eternal
, etern-a, ĉiam-a.

Europe
, Eŭrop-o.

evangel
, evangeli-o.

even
(
level
), eben-a;
— number
, parnombro; (
actually
) (
adv.
), eĉ.

evening
, vesper-o (
93
);
— dress (of man)
, frak-o.

ever
(
adv.
), iam (
212
); (
indefinite adv.
), ajn (
236
); (
always
), ĉiam (
187
).

every
(
one
), (
pronoun and adv.
), ĉiu (
173
);
—thing
,
— way
, etc.,
see table
, 235.

evolution
, evoluci-o.

exact
, akurat-a, ĝust-a; (
demand
), postul-i.

examine
, ekzamen-i;
— and check
, kontrol-i.

example
, ekzempl-o; (
model
), model-o.

Excellency
(
title
), moŝt-o (
258
).

except
, escept-i (
266
); (
prep.
), krom.

excite
, ekscit-i.

exercise
(
trans.
), ekzerc-i.

exhale
, elspir-i.

exhort
, admon-i.

exile
, ekzil-i.

exist
, ekzist-i.

expect
, atend-i.

expend
(
money
), elspez-i; (
energy, etc.
), uz-i, eluz-i.

experienced
, spert-a.

experiment
, eksperiment-i.

expert
, spert-a, lert-a.

explode
(
intrans.
), eksplod-i (
275
).

explore
, esplor-i.

express
, esprim-i; (train), rapida vagonaro.

extend
(
trans.
), etend-i, pligrandig-i, plilongig-i.

extensive
, vast-a, vastampleks-a.

extent
(size), ampleks-o.

extinguish
, esting-i.

extraordinary
, eksterordinar-a.

eye
, okul-o;
—brow
, brov-o;
—lid
, palpebr-o.

F.

F.

fable
, fabel-o.

face
, vizaĝ-o.

fact
, fakt-o;
in —
, fakt-e, efektiv-e, ja (
215
).

fade
, velk-i.

fair
(just), just-a; (
beautiful
), bel-a.

fairy
, fe-o, fein-o.

faint
, sven-i.

faithful
, fidel-a.

fall
, fal-i; (
autumn
), aŭtun-o.

false
, fals-a; (
treacherous
), perfid-a.

fame
, fam-o.

familiar
, familiar-a, kutim-a.

family
, famili-o.

fancy
, imag-i, rev-i.

far
, malproksim-e;
as — as
(
prep.
), ĝis (
46
).

farm
(
as a tenant
), farm-i; (
till the soil
), terkultur-i.

farewell
(
adv. and interjection
), adiaŭ (
171, 273
).

fashion
, fason-o, mod-o.

fasten
, lig-i.

fat
, gras-o; (
corpulent
), dik-a.

fatal
, fatal-a.

fate
, sort-o, fatal-o, destin-o.

father
, patr-o.

faucet
, kran-o.

favor
, favor-i;
a —
, komplezo.

favorable
, favor-a.

fay
, fe-o, fein-o.

fear
, tim-i.

feather
, plum-o.

feature
, trajt-o.

feed
, nutr-i;
— flocks
, paŝt-i.

feel
, sent-i; (
with fingers, etc.
), palp-i.

female
, in-o (
59
).

fervor
, fervor-o.

fetter
(
chain, etc.
), katen-o.

fever
, febr-o.

fiancé
, fianĉ-o.

fie
(
interjection
), fi (
273
).

field
, kamp-o.

fight
, batal-i, milit-i.

fill
, plenig-i.

find
, trov-i.

fine
, bel-a, delikat-a; (
of money
), monpun-o.

finger
, fingr-o;
index —
, montra fingro;
little —
, malgranda fingro;
middle —
, longa fingro;
ring —
, ringa fingro.

finish
(
trans.
), fin-i.

fir
, abi-o.

fire
, fajr-o;
set — to
, ekbrulig-i.

firm
, firm-a.

fish
, fiŝ-o; (
catch fish
), fiŝkapt-i.

fist
, pugn-o.

fit
, almezur-i;
(be) —
, taŭg-i.

(be) fitting
, konven-i; (
decent
), dec-i.

five
(
adj.
), kvin (
136
).

flag
, flag-o; standard-o.

flat
, glat-a, eben-a; plat-a.

flesh
, karn-o.

flex
(
trans.
), fleks-i.

floor
, plank-o.

flour
, farun-o.

flow
, flu-i.

flower
, flor-o (
116
).

fluid
, fluid-a.

fly
, flug-i; (
insect
), muŝ-o.

foam
, ŝaŭm-o.

focus
, fokus-o.

fog
, nebul-o.

fold
, fald-i.

folk
, popol-o.

follow
, sekv-i, postven-i, postir-i.

(be) fond of sweets
, frand-i.

fondle
, dorlot-i.

foot
(
of the body
), pied-o; (
measure
), fut-o.

for
(
prep.
), por (
95, 98, 262
); pro (
86
); (
conj.
), ĉar (
83
).

force
, fort-o; (compel), devig-i;
— (upon)
, altrud-i (al).

fore-
, pra- (
282
).

forehead
, frunt-o.

foreign
, fremd-a.

forge
(
falsify
), fals-i.

forget
, forges-i.

forgive
, pardon-i.

fork
, fork-o.

form
, form-i, alform-i, model-i.

formal
, solen-a.

found
, fond-i.

foundation
, fundament-o.

four
(
adj.
), kvar (
136
).

fount
, font-o.

fountain
, fontan-o.

fox
, vulp-o.

fragrance
, arom-o, bonodor-o.

frame
(
of picture
), kadr-o.

frank
, afrank-i.

Frederick
, Frederik-o.

free
, liber-a.

Frenchman
, franc-o.

frequent
, oft-a; (
visit often
), vizitad-i.

fresh
, freŝ-a, nov-a.

Friday
, vendred-o.

friend
, amik-o.

fringe
, franĝ-o.

frivolous
, malserioz-a.

frock coat
, redingot-o.

frog
, ran-o.

from
(
prep.
), de (
89, 170
); el; (
cause
), pro (
86
).

frost
, frost-o; (
hoar
), prujn-o.

froth
, ŝaŭm-o.

fruit
, frukt-o.

fruitless
(
vain
), van-a.

fry
(
trans.
), frit-i.

function
(
of machinery, etc.
), funkci-i.

funereal
, funebr-a.

fulfil
, plenum-i.

full
, plen-a.

fur
, fel-o; (
coat or wrap
), pelt-o.

furious
, furioz-a.

furnish
(
supply
), liver-i; (
provide
), proviz-i; (
a house
), mebl-i.

furniture
(
piece of
), mebl-o.

furrow
, sulk-o.

further
(
adv.
), plu.

fuse
(
trans.
), fand-i.

futile
, van-a.

future
, estontec-o; (
grammatical
), estont-o; (
adj.
), estont-a.

G.

G.

gain
, gajn-i, obten-i.

gallery
, galeri-o; (
for pictures
), pinakotek-o.

gallop
, galop-i.

gamin
, bub-o.

gape
(
yawn
), osced-i.

garden
, ĝarden-o.

garland
, girland-o.

gas
, gas-o.

gather
(
trans.
), kolekt-i.

gay
, gaj-a.

gaze
, fikse rigard-i.

gazette
, gazet-o.

general
, ĝeneral-a, komun-a; (
military
), general-o.

gentleman
, sinjor-o.

geometry
, geometri-o.

German
, german-o.

Gertrude
, Gertrud-o.

ghost
, fantom-o.

gift
, donac-o.

ginger
, zingibr-o.

girdle
, zon-o.

give
, don-i; (
as a gift
), donac-i;
— information
, inform-i;
— notice
, aviz-i;
— witness
, atest-i;
— birth to
, nask-i.

(be) glad
, ĝoj-i (
116
).

glass
(
material
), vitr-o; (
tumbler
), glas-o.

glide
, glit-i.

globe
, glob-o.

glory
, glor-o.

glossy
(
polished
), polurit-a.

glove
, gant-o.

glue
, glu-i.

gnash
, grinc-i.

go
, ir-i; (
in vehicle, boat, etc.
), vetur-i;
— on a pilgrimage
, pilgrim-i.

goal
, cel-o.

goblet
, pokal-o.

God
, Di-o.

good
, bon-a;
be — for
, taŭg-i por.

good-bye
(
adv. and interjection
), adiaŭ (
171, 273
).

goose
, anser-o.

gospel
, evangeli-o.

govern
, reg-i.

graceful
, graci-a.

grade
, grad-o; (
rank
), rang-o.

grain
(
wheat, etc.
), gren-o; (
unit
) er-o (
276
).

gram
, gram-o (
284
).

grammar
, gramatik-o.

grandfather
, av-o.

grandson
, nep-o.

grape
, vinber-o.

grass
, herb-o.

grasshopper
, akrid-o.

grate
, rasp-i; grater, raspil-o.

grating
(
bar or lattice
), krad-o.

grave
, tomb-o; (
serious
), grav-a.

gravitate
, gravit-i.

gravy
, saŭc-o.

gray
, griz-a.

grieve
(
trans.
), ĉagren-i, malĝojig-i; (
intrans.
) malĝoj-i.

grind
, grinc-i.

great
, grand-a; (
remote in ancestry
), pra- (
282
).

Greek
, grek-o.

green
, verd-a;
—ish
, dubeverd-a.

greet
, salut-i.

groan
, ĝem-i.

group
, grup-o, ar-o (
126
).

ground
, ter-o;
— floor
, teretaĝ-o.

grow
, kresk-i, veget-i.

guard
, gard-i.

guess
, diven-i.

guest
, gast-o.

guide
, gvid-i, direkt-i.

guilty
, kulp-a.

gunpowder
, pulv-o.

gush
(
of liquids
), ŝpruc-i.

H.

H.

habit
, kutim-o.

hack
, hak-i; (
carriage
), fiakr-o.

hail
(
frozen rain
), hajl-o.

(a) hair
, har-o;
— pencil
, penik-o.

half
, duon-o (
166, 277
).

halt
(
intrans.
), halt-i.

ham
, ŝink-o.

hammer
, martel-o.

hand
, man-o; (
of clock
), montril-o.

handbill
, afiŝ-o.

handicraft
, meti-o.

handsome
, bel-a.

hang
(
intrans.
), pend-i.

handy
, oportun-a.

happen
, okaz-i.

happy
, feliĉ-a.

harbor
, haven-o.

hardly
(
adv.
), apenaŭ.

hare
, lepor-o.

haricot
(
bean
), fazeol-o.

harness
, jung-i.

harvest
, rikolt-i.

hasten
(
trans.
), akcel-i; (
intrans.
) rapid-i.

hat
, ĉapel-o.

haughty
, fier-a.

haul
, tren-i.

have
, hav-i;
— to
, dev-i.

hay
, fojn-o.

hazard
, hazard-o.

hazel-nut
, avel-o.

he
(
pronoun
), li (
32, 37, 42
).

head
, kap-o; (
adj.
), ĉef-a.

health
, san-o;
state of (good or bad) —
, fart-o.

hear
, aŭd-i.

heart
, kor-o;
by —
, (
by rote
), parker-e.

heat
(
trans.
), hejt-i, varmig-i.

heaven
, ĉiel-o; heavenly body, astr-o.

heavy
, pez-a.

Hebrew
, hebre-o.

heel
(
of foot
), kalkan-o; (
of shoe
), kalkanum-o.

hektare
, hektar-o (
284
).

hektogram
, hektogram-o (
284
).

hektoliter
, hektolitr-o (
284
).

hektometer
, hektometr-o (
284
).

help
, help-i (
265
).

hen
, kokin-o.

herb
, herb-o.

hero
, hero-o.

hesitate
, hezit-i.

hide
, kaŝ-i (
252
); (
skin of animals
), fel-o.

Hiero
, Hieron-o.

high
, alt-a.

hinge
, ĉarnir-o.

hip
, koks-o.

hire
(
persons
), dung-i; (
houses, etc.
), lu-i.

hiss
, sibl-i.

history
, histori-o.

ho
(
interjection
), ho (
273
).

hoar
(frost), prujn-o.

hoarse
, raŭk-a.

hog
, pork-o.

hold
, ten-i.

holder
(
handle
), tenil-o, ans-o; (
receptacle
), uj-o (
181
); ing-o (
237
).

hole
, tru-o; (
cavity
), kav-o.

Holland
, Holand-o.

holy
, sankt-a.

home
, hejm-o;
at —
, ĉehejme.

homesickness
, nostalgi-o.

honest
, honest-a.

honey
, miel-o.

honeysuckle
, lonicer-o.

honor
, honor-i; (
as term of address
), moŝt-o (
258
).

hook
, kroĉ-i.

hope
, esper-i.

horizon
, horizont-o.

horizontal
, horizontal-a.

horn
, korn-o.

horse
, ĉeval-o.

horse-radish
, armoraci-o.

hose
, ŝtrump-oj;
— supporter
, ŝelk-o.

hotel
, hotel-o.

hour
, hor-o (
185
).

house
, dom-o;
at the — of
(
prep.
), ĉe (
125, 160
).

how
(
adv.
), kiel (
134
); kiamanier-e;
— much
, kiom (
140, 185
).

however
(
conj.
), tamen; (
adv.
), ajn (
236
).

hue
, nuanc-o.

hum
, zum-i.

human being
, hom-o.

humble
, humil-a.

humor
, humor-o.

hundred
(
adj.
), cent (
142
).

hungry
, malsat-a.

hunt
, serĉ-i; (
game or wild animals
), ĉas-i.

hurdy-gurdy
, gurd-o.

hurl
, ĵet-i.

hurrah
(
interjection
), hura (
273
).

hurricane
, uragan-o.

hurry
, rapid-i.

husband
, edz-o.

hypocrite
, hipokrit-o.

I.

I.

I
(
pronoun
), mi (
32, 37, 274
).

ice
, glaci-o; (
food
), glaciaĵ-o.

idea
, ide-o.

ideal
, ideal-o.

identical
, ident-a.

idiom
, idiom-o.

idiot
, idiot-o.

if
(
conj.
), se (
240
);
as —
, kvazaŭ (
250
); (
whether
), ĉu.

ignore
, ignor-i.

illusion
, iluzi-o.

illustrate
, ilustr-i.

image
, bild-o.

imagine
, imag-i.

imitate
, imit-i.

immediate
, tuj-a (
171
).

implicate
, implik-i.

important
, grav-a, serioz-a.

importunate
, altrudem-a.

impose
, trud-i.

impost
, impost-o.

impress
, impres-i.

impulse
, impuls-o.

in
(
prep.
), en (
46, 89, 160
);
— the presence of
, ĉe (
125, 160
).

inch
, col-o.

incite
, incit-i.

incline
(
trans.
), klin-i.

incommode
, ĝen-i.

(be) indebted
, ŝuld-i.

indeed
(
adv.
), ja (
215
); do; efektiv-e.

index
, tabel-o.

Indian
(
American
), indian-o, ruĝhaŭtul-o;
— corn
, maiz-o.

indifferent
, indiferent-a.

industry
(
trade
), industri-o.

inebriate
, ebri-a.

inevitable
, nepr-a, neevitebl-a.

infect
, infekt-i.

influence
, influ-i.

inform
, inform-i, sciig-i.

ingenuous
, naiv-a.

inhabitant
, loĝant-o, an-o (
145
).

inhale
, enspir-i.

ink
, ink-o.

inquire
, demand-i.

insect
, insekt-o.

inside
(
adv.
), intern-e; (
prep.
), en.

insist
, insist-i.

inspect
, inspekt-i, ekzamen-i, rigard-i, kontrol-i.

inspire
, inspir-i.

instantaneous
, moment-a.

instead of
(
prep.
), anstataŭ (
98, 159
).

instruct
, instru-i; (
order
), ordon-i.

insult
, insult-i.

insure
(
with a company
), asekur-i; (
make certain
), certig-i.

intelligent
, inteligent-a.

intend
, intenc-i.

interest
, interes-i; (
of money
), procent-o.

(be) intermittent
, intermit-i.

internal
, intern-a.

interpret
, interpret-i.

intimate
, intim-a.

intoxicated
, ebri-a.

investigate
, esplor-i, ekzamen-i, elserĉ-i.

invite
, invit-i.

iron
(
metal
), fer-o; (
linen
), glad-i.

island
, insul-o.

it
(
pronoun
), ĝi (
32, 37, 42, 274
);
see also
50, 51.

Italian
, ital-o.

J.

J.

jacket
, jak-o.

jail
, karcer-o.

jam
, kompot-o, fruktaĵ-o.

January
, januar-o.

jaw
(
orifice, opening
), faŭk-o; (
of the skull
), makzel-o;
—bone
, makzelost-o.

jealous
, ĵaluz-a.

jest
, ŝerc-i.

Jesus
, Jesu-o.

Jew
, hebre-o.

jewel
, juvel-o.

jingle
(
intrans.
), tint-i.

John
, Johan-o.

joint
, artik-o.

joke
, ŝerc-i.

journal
, ĵurnal-o, revu-o.

journey
, vojaĝ-i.

judge
, juĝ-i.

jug
, kruĉ-o.

juggle
, ĵongl-i.

July
, juli-o.

jump
, salt-i.

June
, juni-o.

jurist
, jurist-o.

just
(
upright
), just-a; (
exact
), ĝust-a; (
adv.
), ĝust-e, ĵus.

K.

K.

keep
, ten-i, gard-i; (
preserve
), konserv-i;
— in mind
, memor-i.

kerosene
, petrol-o.

key
, ŝlosil-o; (
of piano, etc.
), klav-o.

kill
, mortig-i.

kilogram
, kilogram-o (
284
).

kiloliter
, kilolitr-o (
284
).

kilometer
, kilometr-o (
284
).

kind
(
species
), spec-o; (
good
), bon-a, bonkor-a;
that —
,
what —
, etc.,
see table
, 235.

kindness
, komplez-o, bonkorec-o.

king
, reĝ-o;
—dom
, reĝolando.

kiss
, kis-i.

knave
, fripon-o.

knee
, genu-o.

kneel
, genufleks-i.

knit
, trik-i.

knock
, frap-i.

knot
, tuber-o; (
tied
), ligaĵ-o; (
of ribbon
), bant-o.

know
, sci-i; (
be acquainted with
), kon-i (
117
).

kobold
, kobold-o.

L.

L.

labor
, labor-i;
— for the success or completion of something
, klopod-i.

lace
, punt-o; (
of a shoe
), laĉ-o.

(be) lacking
(
intrans.
) mank-i.

lake
, lag-o.

lamb
, ŝafid-o; (
meat
), ŝafidaĵ-o.

lame
, lam-a.

lamp
, lamp-o.

lance
, lanc-o.

land
, land-o; (
estate
), bien-o; (
soil
), ter-o.

landscape
, pejzaĝ-o.

language
, lingv-o.

lantern
, lantern-o.

large
, grand-a.

lark
(
bird
), alaŭd-o.

last
(
intrans.
), daŭr-i; (
in a series
), last-a; (
previous
) pasint-a, antaŭ-a.

latch
, ans-o.

late
, malfru-a.

Latin
, latin-a.

latter
, ĉi-tiu (
61, 62
).

lattice
, krad-o.

laugh
, rid-i (
265
).

law
, leĝ-o;
—suit
, proces-o; (
rule
), regul-o.

lawyer
, advokat-o, leĝist-o.

lay
, meti, kuŝig-i;
— aside
, demet-i;
— claim
, pretend-i.

layer
, tavol-o.

lead
, konduk-i.

lead
(
metal
), plumb-o.

leaf
, foli-o.

league
(
alliance
), lig-o.

lean
(
trans.
), apog-i, klin-i; (
not fat
), malgras-a.

leap
, salt-i;
—year
, superjar-o.

learn
, lern-i; (
news, etc.
), sciiĝ-i.

learned
, kler-a.

least
(
adv.
), malplej (
80
), malpli multe (
81
);
at —
, almenaŭ.

leather
, led-o.

leave
(
trans.
), las-i;
— off
(
intrans.
), ĉes-i.

leg
, krur-o.

legal
, leĝ-a;
— process
, proces-o.

lemon
, citron-o.

lemonade
, citronaĵ-o, limonad-o.

lend
, prunt-i, pruntedon-i.

lens
, objektiv-o.

lengthen
(
trans.
), etend-i, plilongig-i.

less
(
adv.
), malpli (
80
); malpli multe (
81
).

lesson
, lecion-o.

let
(
trans.
), las-i; (
rent
), luig-i; (
permit
), permes-i.

letter
(
epistle
), leter-o; (
of the alphabet
), liter-o.

lettuce
, laktuk-o.

level
, nivel-o; (
flat
), eben-a.

library
, bibliotek-o; (
collection of books
), librar-o.

lick
, lek-i.

lie
(
recline
), kuŝ-i (
239
); (
tell falsehoods
), mensog-i.

lift
, lev-i.

light
, lum-a, hel-a; (
not heavy
), malpez-a.

lightning
, fulm-o.

like
, ŝat-i; (
similar
), simil-a; see also 250.

limb
, membro; (
of a tree
), branĉ-o.

limit
, lim-i.

linden
, tili-o.

line
, lini-o, vic-o, strek-o.

linen
, tol-o.

lion
, leon-o.

lip
, lip-o.

liquid
, fluid-a.

listen
, aŭskult-i.

liter
, litr-o (
284
).

literal
, laŭliter-a.

literature
, literatur-o.

little
, malgrand-a; (
with slightly affectionate sense
), et-a (
198
); (
adv.
), malmulte, iom (
217
);
— by —
, iom post iom.

live
, viv-i; (
dwell
), loĝ-i (
133
).

load
, ŝarĝ-i.

loan
, prunt-i, pruntedon-i.

local
, lok-a.

lock
, ŝlos-i; (
fastening
), serur-o.

locomotive
, lokomotiv-o.

lodge
, loĝ-i.

log
, ŝtip-o.

long
, long-a;
— for
, sopir-i je.

look
, rigard-i;
— for
, serĉ-i.

lose
, perd-i; (
fail to profit
), malgajn-i;
— time
, malfru-i.

lot
(
fate
), sort-o.

loud
, laŭt-a.

love
, am-i;
make —
, amindum-i.

loyal
, fidel-a, lojal-a.

luck
, ŝanc-o; lucky, bonŝanc-a.

lull
, kvietig-i; (
to sleep
), lul-i.

lunatic
, lunatik-o.

lung
, pulm-o.

luxury
, luks-o.

M.

M.

macaroni
, makaroni-o.

machine
, maŝin-o.

mad
, frenez-a.

magazine
, gazet-o, ĵurnal-o, revu-o.

magic
, magi-o.

mail
, poŝt-o, enpoŝtig-i;
— box
, poŝtkest-o.

maize
, maiz-o.

majestic
, majest-a.

majesty
(
term of address
), moŝt-o (
258
).

make
, far-i (see also 214);
— mistakes
, erar-i;
— love
, amindum-i.

malicious
, malic-a.

man
, vir-o.

manage
, administr-i, direkt-i; (
a household
), mastrum-i.

manner
, manier-o; (
right or wrong
), mor-o;
in that —
,
in every —
, etc.,
see table
, 235.

mantle
, mantel-o.

manufacture
, fabrik-i.

manuscript
, manuskript-o.

maple
, acer-o.

marble
(stone), marmor-o.

march
, marŝad-i.

March
, mart-o.

mark
, mark-o, sign-o; (
official
), stamp-o.

marmalade
, marmelad-o.

marry
(
become married
), edziĝ-i.

master
, mastr-o; (
of his profession or art
), majstr-o;
— of Arts (A.M.)
, magistr-o.

match
(
for fire
), alumet-o.

material
, material-o; (
cloth
), ŝtof-o.

matter
, afer-o.

mature
, matur-a.

maximum
, maksimum-o.

May
, maj-o; (
auxiliary verb
),
see
269, 270.

mayonnaise
, majones-a.

mean
, signif-i, intenc-i, malnobl-a.

meaning
, senc-o.

means
, rimed-o;
by — of
(
prep.
), per (
64
).

measure
(
trans.
), mezur-i.

meat
, viand-o.

mechanics
, meĥanik-o.

medical
, medicin-a, kuracist-a.

medicine
(
drug, etc.
), kuracil-o; (
science
), medicin-o, kuracart-o.

meet
(
trans.
), renkont-i, traf-i; (
assemble
), kunven-i.

melody
, melodi-o.

melon
, melon-o.

melt
, fluidig-i, fluidiĝ-i, degel-i.

member
, membr-o, an-o (
145
).

memory
, memor-o;
by —
, parker-e, memor-e.

mend
, ripar-i; (
patch
), flik-i.

mention
, nom-i; cit-i.

menu
, menu-o.

merely
(
adv.
), nur.

merit
, merit-i.

merry
, gaj-a;
make —
, festen-i.

merry-go-round
, karusel-o.

metal
, metal-o.

meter
, metr-o (
284
).

method
, metod-o.

middle
, mez-o, centr-o.

mien
, mien-o.

mild
, mild-a.

mile
, mejl-o.

milk
, lakt-o; (
draw the milk of
), melk-i.

mill
, muel-o.

millimeter
, milimetr-o (
284
).

million
, milion-o.

mine
(
coal, etc
), min-o; (
possessive adj.
), mi-a (
43
).

mineral
, mineral-o.

minimum
, minimum-o.

minister
(
political
), ministr-o; (
clergyman
), pastr-o.

minute
(time), minut-o; (
adj.
), detal-a, malgrand-a.

minutes
(of a meeting), protokol-o.

mirror
, spegul-o.

miserly
, avar-a.

misery
, mizer-o.

miss
(
fail to reach
), maltraf-i; (
be missing
), mank-i; (
notice the absence of
), senti la foreston de; (
young lady
), fraŭlin-o (
163
).

mist
, nebul-o.

mistake
, erar-o.

Mister
, Sinjor-o (
163, 286
).

mix
(
trans.
), miks-i.

mock
, mok-i.

mode
, fason-o, mod-o.

model
, model-o.

moderate
, moder-a.

modest
, modest-a.

moment
, moment-o;
a — ago
, (
adv.
), ĵus.

monarch
, monarĥ-o.

Monday
, lund-o.

money
, mon-o;
— box
, kas-o;
— order
, mandat-o.

monk
, monaĥ-o.

monkey
, simi-o.

month
, monat-o.

moon
, lun-o.

moral
, moral-a, bonmor-a; morals, moroj.

more
(
adv.
), pli (
74, 79
); (
quantity
), pli multe (
81
); (
further
), plu;
the —
, ju pli, des pli (
84
).

morning
, maten-o (
93
).

morsel
, pec-o.

most
(
adv.
), plej (
74, 79
); (
quantity
), plej multe (
81
).

mould
, ŝim-o.

mountain
, mont-o.

mourning
, funebr-o.

mouse
, mus-o.

moustache
, lipharoj.

mouth
, buŝ-o; (
of river
), enflu-o, elflu-o.

move
(
trans.
), mov-i; (
change residence
) transloĝ-i.

much
, mult-a (
81
); (
very
), tre.

mud
, kot-o.

murmur
, murmur-i.

museum
, muze-o.

mushroom
, fung-o.

music
, muzik-o.

must
, dev-i (
247
).

mute
, mut-a.

mutton
, ŝafaĵ-o.

mutual
, reciprok-a (
180
), komun-a.

myopic
, miop-a.

mystery
, mister-o.

N.

N.

nail
(
metal
), najl-o; (
of the finger or toe
), ung-o.

naive
, naiv-a.

naked
, nud-a.

name
, nom-o.

narrate
, rakont-i.

nation
, naci-o.

nature
, natur-o.

naught
, nul-o; (
none
), neniom (
231
).

near
, proksim-a (
170
); (
prep.
), apud (
120, 159
).

necessary
, neces-a.

neck
, kol-o.

need
, bezon-i.

needle
, kudril-o.

negative
, ne-a (
171
); (
photographic
), negativ-o.

neighbor
, najbar-o.

neither
(
conj.
), nek (
31
); (
pronoun and adj.
), neniu (
220
).

nephew
, nev-o.

nerve
, nerv-o.

nest
, nest-o.

net
, ret-o.

neutral
, neŭtral-a.

never
(
adv.
), neniam (
226
).

nevertheless
(
conj.
), tamen.

new
, nov-a, freŝ-a; news, novaĵ-o.

newspaper
, ĵurnal-o, tagĵurnal-o.

nice
, delikat-a.

night
, nokt-o.

nine
(
adj.
), naŭ (
136
).

nitrogen
, azot-o.

no
(
adv.
), ne (
27, 66, a
); (
adj.
), neniu (
220
);
— one
,
—where
, etc.,
see table
, 235.

noble
, nobl-a,

nobleman
, nobel-o.

nobody
(
pronoun
), neniu (
220
).

nod
(
the head
), balanc-i (
la kapon
).

noise
, bru-o.

none
(
adj. and pronoun
), neniu (
220
); (
adv.
), neniom (
231
).

non-partisan
, neŭtral-a.

noon
, tagmez-o.

nor
(
conj.
), nek (
31
).

north
, nord-o.

Norwegian
, norveg-o.

not
(
adv.
), ne (
27, 66, a
).

note
, not-o, bilet-o;
—book
, kajer-o; (
notice
), rimark-i, not-i.

nothing
, nenio (
233
).

notice
, rimark-i; not-i;
give —
, aviz-i.

notwithstanding
(
prep.
), malgraŭ; (
conj.
), tamen.

nourish
, nutr-i.

novel
, nov-a; (
book
), roman-o.

November
, novembr-o.

now
(
adv.
), nun.

nude
, nud-a.

nullify
, nulig-i, neniig-i.

number
(
quantity
), nombr-o; (
numeral
), numer-o.

nut
, nuks-o.

O.

O.

oak
, kverk-o.

(make) oath
, ĵur-i.

oats
, aven-o.

obey
, obe-i (
265
).

object
, objekt-o; (
aim
), cel-o; (
oppose
), kontraŭparol-i, kontraŭstar-i, protest-i.

objective
, objektiv-o.

obligation
(
financial
), ŝuld-o; (
moral
), dev-o.

oblige
(
compel
), devig-i; (
render service
), far-i komplezon, serv-i.

oblique
, oblikv-a.

observe
, observ-i, rimark-i, not-i.

obstinate
, obstin-a.

obstruct
, bar-i.

occasion
, foj-o (
127
); okaz-o.

occupation
, profesi-o, okup-o, meti-o.

occupy
, okup-i.

occur
, okaz-i.

ocean
, ocean-o.

October
, oktobr-o.

odor
, odor-o.

of
(
prep.
), de (
49, 100, 160, 170
); da (
99, 101, 103
); el; (
concerning
), pri (160, 264, c).

offend
, ofend-i.

offer
, propon-i, prezent-i, ofer-i.

office
, ofic-o; (
place
), oficej-o.

officer
(
of organization or firm
), oficist-o; (
military or naval
), oficir-o.

official
, oficial-a.

often
(
adv.
), oft-e, multfoj-e.

oh
(
interjection
), ho (
273
).

oil
, ole-o.

olive
, oliv-o.

on
(
prep.
), sur;
— account of
, pro (
86
).

once
(
adv.
), unufoj-e;
— on a time
, iam (
212
);
at —
, tuj;
— more
, bis.

one
(
adj.
), unu (
136, 137, 180
); (
pronoun
), oni (
54
). See 235.

onion
, bulb-o.

only
, sol-a; (
mere
), nur-a.

opera
, oper-o;
— glasses
, lornet-o.

opinion
, opini-o.

opportune
, oportun-a.

opposed to
(
prep.
), kontraŭ.

opposite
(
converse
), mal-o (
67
); (
prep.
), kontraŭ.

or
(
conj.
), aŭ.

orange
(fruit), oranĝ-o.

orchestra
, orkestr-o.

order
, ordon-i; (
of store, etc.
), mend-i; (
methodical or proper arrangement
), ord-o;
money —
, mandat-o.

ordinary
, ordinar-a.

organ
(
physical
), organ-o; (
musical
), orgen-o.

organize
, organiz-i.

original
, original-o.

ornament
, ornam-i.

orphan
, orf-o.

oscillate
(
intrans.
), balanciĝ-i.

ostracism
, ostracism-o.

other
, ali-a; (
remaining
), ceter-a;
— people's
, malpropr-a;
—wise
, ali-e.

out of
, el.

outline
, kontur-o; (
profile
), profil-o; (
sketch
), skiz-o.

outside
(
prep.
), ekster (
120, 121
).

over
(
prep.
), super; (
across
), trans; (
concerning
), pri;
—coat
, surtut-o;
—shoe
, superŝu-o; (
adv.
), (
too
), tro.

owe
, ŝuld-i.

own
, posed-i, propr-a.

ox
, bov-o.

oyster
, ostr-o.

P.

P.

pack
, pak-i.

pad
, rembur-i.

paddle
, padel-i.

page
(
of book, etc.
), paĝ-o.

pail
, sitel-o.

pain
, dolor-o; (
effort
), pen-o; take pains, pen-i.

paint
, pentr-i; (
material
), kolorigil-o;
—brush
, penik-o.

pair
, par-o.

palace
, palac-o.

pale
, pal-a.

palisade
, palisar-o.

palm
(
of the hand
), polm-o.

pamphlet
, broŝur-o.

pan
, pat-o.

paper
(
material
), paper-o;
news—
, ĵurnal-o.

paradise
, paradiz-o.

paragraph
, paragraf-o.

pardon
, pardon-i (
265
).

parallel
, paralel-a.

park
, park-o.

parlor
, salon-o.

parsley
, petrosel-o.

parsnip
, pastinak-o.

part
, part-o; of a work or book, kajer-o; separate (
trans.
), disir-i, apartig-i, disdivid-i.

participle
, particip-o.

pass
(
intrans.
), pas-i.

passage
, koridor-o.

passenger
, pasaĝer-o.

passion
, pasi-o.

passive
, pasiv-a.

past
(
prep.
), preter; (
time
), estintec-o; (
grammatical
), estint-o; (
bygone
), estint-a.

paste
(
glue
), glu-i.

pasteboard
, karton-o.

pastor
, pastr-o.

pastry
, kukaĵ-o.

pasture
(
trans.
), paŝt-i.

patch
, flik-i.

path
, vojet-o.

patience
, pacienc-o.

patient
(
ill person
), kuracat-o.

patty
, pasteĉ-o.

pause
, paŭz-i.

pavement
, pavim-o; (
sidewalk
), trotuar-o.

pay
, pag-i; — dues, kotiz-i.

pea
, piz-o.

peace
, pac-o.

peach
, persik-o.

pear
, pir-o.

pearl
, perl-o.

peculiar
, strang-a, kurioz-a.

peddle
, kolport-i.

pedestal
, piedestal-o.

pedestrian
, piedirant-o.

peeling
, ŝel-o.

pen
, plum-o; (
enclosure
), ej-o (
III
).

pencil
, krajon-o;
hair—
, penik-o.

penetrate
, penetr-i.

people
, popol-o; (
indefinite pronoun
), oni (
54
).

pepper
, pipr-o.

perceive
, sent-i; (
see
), vid-i.

percentage
, procent-o; (
of profit
), tantiem-o.

perfect
, perfekt-a.

perfidious
, perfid-a.

perform
(act), ag-i; (
fulfil
), plenum-i; (
do
), far-i.

perfume
, parfum-o; (
odor
), bonodor-o.

period
, period-o; (
of time
), epok-o; (
punctuation
), punkt-o.

perish
, pere-i.

permit
, permes-i.

persecute
, persekut-i; (
worry
), turment-i, ĝen-i.

persevere
, persist-i.

person
, person-o.

perspire
, ŝvit-i.

persuade
, konvink-i.

pet
, dorlot-i.

petroleum
, petrol-o.

phantom
, fantom-o.

Pharaoh
, faraon-o.

pharmacy
, farmaci-o; (
shop
), apotek-o.

philosopher
, filozof-o.

photograph
, fotograf-i.

phrase
, fraz-o.

physician
, kuracist-o.

physics
, fizik-o.

pick
(
choose
), elekt-i; (
gather
), kolekt-i.

pickle
, pekl-i.

picture
, bild-o; (
portrait
), portret-o;
— gallery
, pinakotek-o.

picturesque
, pitoresk-a, pentrind-a.

pie
, kukaĵ-o; (
patty
), pasteĉ-o.

piece
, pec-o.

pig
, pork-o.

pigeon
, kolomb-o.

(be a) pilgrim
, pilgrim-i.

pillage
, rab-i.

pillar
, kolon-o.

pin
, pingl-o.

pinch
, pinĉ-i.

pine
(
tree
), pin-o;
— for
, sopir-i je.

pineapple
, ananas-o.

pinnacle
, pint-o.

pioneer
, pionir-o.

pious
, pi-a.

pipe
, tub-o; (
for smoking
), pip-o.

pitcher
, kruĉ-o.

pity
, kompat-i; (
regrettable affair
), domaĝ-o.

placard
, afiŝ-o.

place
, lok-o; (
for something
), -ej-o (
111
); (
broad, short street or open space
), plac-o; (
put
), met-i.

plait
, plekt-i.

plan
, plan-o, projekt-o, skiz-o.

plane
, plat-a.

planet
, planed-o.

plank
, tabul-o.

plant
, plant-i; (
vegetable growth
), kreskaĵ-o, vegetaĵ-o.

plate
, plat-o; (
dish
) teler-o.

platform
(
railway
), peron-o.

play
, lud-i; (
music
), muzik-i; (
theatrical
), teatraĵ-o.

player
(
theatrical
), aktor-o.

pleasant
, agrabl-a, dolĉ-a, afabl-a.

please
, plaĉ-i (
265
); kontentig-i, far-i plezuron al; (
in requests
), bonvolu, mi petas.

pleasure
, plezur-o;
take — in
, ĝu-i.

plot
, konspir-i.

plow
, plug-i.

plum
, prun-o.

plumber
, plumbist-o.

plunder
, rab-i.

plural
, multenombr-o.

pneumatic
, pneumatik-a.

pocket
, poŝ-o.

poem
, poem-o.

poet
, poet-o.

poetry
, poezi-o.

point
, punkt-o; (
sharp
), pint-o;
— out
, montr-i.

poise
(
trans.
), balanc-i; (of manner), aplomb-o.

poison
, venen-o.

pole
, stang-o; (
shaft of vehicle
), timon-o; (
geographical
), polus-o.

Pole
, pol-o.

police
, polic-o.

polite
, ĝentil-a.

politics
, politik-o.

polish
, polur-i; polished, polurit-a, glat-a.

pomp
, pomp-o.

popular
, popular-o, popol-a.

porcelain
, porcelan-o.

porch
, verand-o; (
stoop
), peron-o; (
balcony
), balkon-o.

pork
, porkaĵ-o.

port
, haven-o.

portion
, porci-o, part-o.

portrait
, portret-o.

possess
, posed-i.

possible
, ebl-a (
161, 162
); kredebl-a (
270
).

post
(
pole
), stang-o; (
mail
), poŝt-o;
—card
, poŝtkart-o;
—paid
, afrankit-e.

postage
(
cost
), poŝtelspezo;
— stamp
, poŝtmark-o.

poster
, afiŝ-o.

pot
, pot-o.

potato
, terpom-o;
sweet —
, batat-o.

pound
, pist-i; (
measure
), funt-o.

pour
(liquids), verŝ-i; (
as in a chute
), ŝut-i.

powder
, pudr-o.

power
, pov-o, potenc-o.

practice
, praktik-i.

praise
, laŭd-i.

pray
, preĝ-i.

preach
, predik-i.

precise
, preciz-a, ĝust-a.

predestined
, fatal-a.

prefer
, prefer-i.

prefix
, prefiks-o.

premium
, premi-o.

prepare
, prepar-i.

prepay
, afrank-i.

presence
, ĉeest-o, apudest-o;
in the — of
(
prep.
), ĉe (
125
), antaŭ.

present
(
gift
), donac-o; (
time
), estantec-o, estant-a, nun-a (
171
); (
in attendance
), ĉeestant-a.

present
, prezent-i, donac-i, don-i.

preserve
(
keep
), ten-i; (
keep safe
), konserv-i; (
food
), kompot-o, konfitaĵ-o.

preside
, prezid-i.

president
, prezidant-o.

press
, prem-i; (
print
), pres-i; (
wardrobe
), ŝrank-o; (
be urgent
), urĝ-i.

pretend
(
make pretext of
), pretekst-i; (
feign
), ŝajnig-i; (
lay claim
), pretend-i.

price
, prez-o, kost-o.

prick
, pik-i.

priest
, pastr-o.

prince
, princ-o, reĝid-o.

principal
, precip-a, ĉef-a.

print
, pres-i.

prize
, ŝat-i; (
premium
), premi-o.

prized
, kar-a, altetaksat-a, ŝatat-a.

problem
, problem-o.

process
, metod-o; (
legal
), proces-o.

proclaim
, proklam-i.

procrastinate
, prokrast-i.

produce
, produkt-i;
— a result
, efik-i; (
give birth to
), nask-i.

profession
, profesi-o.

professor
, profesor-o.

profile
, profil-o.

profit
, profit-i; (
percentage
), tantiem-o.

profound
, profund-a.

progress
, progres-i.

project
, projekt-o.

promenade
, promen-i.

promise
, promes-i.

propensity
, inklin-o, em-o (
192
).

(be) proper
, dec-i.

property
, propraĵ-o, posedaĵ-o; (
land
), bien-o; (
characteristic
), ec-o (
202
).

proportional
, proporci-a.

propose
, propon-i, sugesti-i.

prose
, prozo;
piece of —
, prozaĵo.

prosecute
, persekut-i.

prosper
, prosper-i.

protect
, protekt-i, gard-i.

protest
, protest-i.

proud
, fier-a

prove
, pruv-i; (
test
), prov-i.

provoke
, incit-i, ekscit-i, kaŭz-i, nask-i, kolerig-i.

psalm
, psalm-o.

public
, publik-o.

publish
, publikig-i, eldon-i.

pudding
, puding-o.

pull
, tir-i.

pump
, pump-i.

pumpkin
, kukurb-o.

punish
, pun-i.

pure
, pur-a.

puree
, pistaĵ-o.

purple
, purpur-a.

purpose
, cel-i, intenc-i.

push
, puŝ-i; (
shove
), ŝov-i.

put
, met-i;
— off
, prokrast-i.

Q.

Q.

quality
, ec-o (
202
); (
texture, etc.
), kvalito.

quantity
, kvant-o;
any —
,
a certain —
, iom (
217
);
see table
, 235.

quarter
(
of a city
), kvartal-o; (
fourth
), kvaron-o;
—ly
, trimonat-a.

question
, demand-o; (
problem
), problem-o; (
doubt
), dub-o.

quick
, rapid-a; (
lively
), viv-a.

quiet
, kviet-a, trankvil-a, silent-a.

quince
, cidoni-o.

quite
(
adv.
), tut-e.

quote
, cit-i.

R.

R.

rabbit
, kunikl-o.

race
(
people
), ras-o.

radish
, rafan-o;
horse—
, armoraci-o.

radius
, radi-o.

rag
, ĉifon-o.

raging
, furioz-a.

rail
, rel-o;
—way
, fervoj-o;
—way carriage
, vagon-o;
—way station
, stacidom-o.

rain
, pluv-o;
—bow
, ĉielark-o.

raise
, lev-i.

raisin
, sekvinber-o.

rank
, rang-o; (
grade
), grad-o.

rap
, frapet-i.

rapid
, rapid-a.

rascal
, fripon-o, kanajl-o.

rasp
, rasp-i.

raspberry
, framb-o.

rat
, rat-o.

rate
, taks-i; (
schedule of prices
), tarif-o, prezar-o; (
percentage
), procent-o;
at the — of
(
prep.
), po (
175
).

rational
, prudent-a, racional-a.

raucous
, raŭk-a.

raven
, korv-o.

ravishing
, rav-a.

raw
, nekuirit-a.

ray
(
of light
), radi-o.

reach
, ating-i; (
a goal
), traf-i.

read
, leg-i.

ready
, pret-a.

real
, efektiv-a, real-a; ver-a.

reap
, rikolt-i.

reason
(
exert the power of reasoning
), rezon-i; (
cause
), kaŭz-o; (
motive
), kial-o;
for what —, for any —, etc.
,
see table
, 235.

reasonable
, prudent-a.

rebate
, rabat-i.

recall
, revok-i; (
to memory
), rememor-i; (
to another's memory
), rememorig-i.

receive
, ricev-i; (
accept
), akcept-i; (
money
), enspez-i.

receipt
(
for payment
), kvitanc-o.

reckon
, kalkul-i.

recent
, nov-a, antaŭnelong-a (
90
).

receptacle
, uj-o (
237
); (
for one object
), ing-o (
181
).

recess
(
alcove
), alkov-o; (
vacation
), libertemp-o.

reciprocal
, reciprok-a (
180
).

recite
, deklam-i.

recline
, kuŝ-i (
239
).

recommend
, rekomend-i.

recompense
, rekompenŝ-i.

recover
(
find
), retrov-i; (
get well
), resaniĝ-i.

red
, ruĝ-a; reddish, duberuĝ-a.

reduction
(
of price
), rabat-o.

refine
, rafin-i.

refuse
, rifuz-i, malpermes-i.

refute
, refut-i.

regale
, regal-i.

region
, region-o.

register
(
trans.
), registr-i; (
letters
), rekomend-i.

regret
, bedaŭr-i; (
be penitent for
), pent-i.

regrettable
, bedaŭrind-a;
— affair (pity)
, domaĝ-o.

regulation
, regul-o, leĝ-o.

reign
, reg-i.

rejoice
, ĝoj-i (
116
).

relate
, rilat-i (
266
); (
tell
), rakont-i.

relative
(
person
), parenc-o.

religion
, religi-o.

rely
, konfid-i; fid-i.

remain
, rest-i; remaining (
other
), ceter-a.

remember
, memor-i; (
recall to memory
), rememor-i.

render
, far-i, ig-i (
214
); (
an account
), don-i, prezent-i, liver-i.

renown
, fam-o, glor-o.

rent
, lu-i; (
let
), luig-i; (
farm out
), farm-i; (
price
), luprez-o.

repair
, ripar-i; (
patch
), flik-i.

repeat
, ripet-i.

repent
, pent-i.

report
, raport-i.

repose
, ripoz-i.

represent
, reprezent-i.

reproach
, riproĉ-i.

republic
, respublik-o.

repulse
, repuŝ-i, repel-i.

request
, pet-i.

require
, postul-i; (
need
), bezon-i.

rescue
, sav-i.

reside
, loĝ-i.

respect
, respekt-i.

rest
(
repose
), ripoz-i; (
remain
), rest-i; (
— upon
), apog-i sur.

restaurant
, restoraci-o.

result
, rezult-i.

resume
, resum-o.

return
(
go back
), reir-i; (
come back
), reven-i; (
give back
), redon-i.

revery
, rev-o.

review
(
magazine
), revu-o.

reward
, rekompenc-i.

rhubarb
, rabarb-o.

rib
, rip-o.

ribbon
, ruband-o.

rice
, riz-o.

rich
, riĉ-a.

ride
, rajd-i; (
in vehicle, boat, etc.
), vetur-i.

ridicule
, mok-i; worthy of — (ridiculous), ridind-a.

right
, prav-a; (
to something
), rajt-o; (
not left
), dekstr-a.

right-angled
, ort-a.

ring
(
intrans.
), sonor-i; (
circlet
), ring-o.

ringlet
(
of hair
), bukl-o.

ripe
, matur-a.

river
, river-o.

road
, voj-o; (
broad roadway
), ŝose-o.

roam
, vag-i.

roar
, muĝ-i.

roast
, rost-i.

rob
, rab-i, ŝtel-i.

robber
, rabist-o.

robe
, rob-o.

Robert
, Robert-o.

roguish
, petol-a; (
rascally
), fripon-a.

roll
(
trans.
), rul-i; (
something around something else
), volv-i; (
bread
), bulk-o; (
list
), list-o, registr-o.

roof
, tegment-o.

room
, ĉambr-o; (
space
), spac-o.

root
, radik-o.

rose
, roz-o.

(by) rote
, parker-e.

round
, rond-o; (
of ladder
), ŝtupet-o; (
roundabout
) (
prep.
) ĉirkaŭ (
89, 120, 159, 160
).

routine
, rutin-o.

row
(boats), rem-i.

royalty
, reĝec-o; (
share of profit
) tantiem-o.

rub
, frot-i.

ruin
, ruin-o.

rule
, reg-i; (
draw lines
), lini-i; (
regulation
), regul-o.

rumor
, fam-o; rumored, laŭdir-a.

run
, kur-i; (
of fluids
), flu-i.

Russian
, rus-o.

rust
, rust-i.

S.

S.

sack
, sak-o; (
plunder
), rab-i.

sacred
, sankt-a.

sacrifice
, ofer-i, oferdon-i.

saddle
, sel-o.

safe
, sendanĝer-a, senrisk-a; (
chest
), monkest-o.

sail
, vel-o.

salad
, salat-o.

salary
, salajr-o.

salt
, sal-o.

salute
, salut-i.

same
, sam-a.

sample
, specimen-o.

sand
, sabl-o.

sap
, suk-o.

sardine
, sarden-o.

satchel
, valiz-o.

sated
, sat-a.

satin
, atlas-o.

satisfied
, kontent-a; (
of hunger
), sat-a.

Saturday
, sabat-o.

sausage
, kolbas-o.

sauce
, saŭc-o.

saucer
, subtas-o, teleret-o.

saucy
, petol-a, malĝentil-a, insultem-a.

savage
, sovaĝ-a.

save
, sav-i; (
keep
), konserv-i; (
economize
), ŝpar-i; (
prep.
), krom, escepte de.

saw
, seg-i.

say
, dir-i (
77
).

scales
(
for weighing
), pesil-o.

scarcely
(
adv.
), apenaŭ.

scent
(
trans.
), flar-i.

schedule
(
of rates
), tarif-o.

science
, scienc-o.

scissors
, tondil-o.

Scot
(
Scotchman
), skot-o.

scoundrel
, kanajl-o, fripon-o.

scrape
, skrap-i.

screen
, ŝirm-i.

screw
, ŝraŭb-o;
—driver
, ŝraŭbturnil-o.

sculpture
, skulpt-i.

sea
, mar-o.

seal
, sigel-i.

season
(
of the year
), sezon-o.

second
(
of time
), sekund-o; (
in order
), dua;
a — time
(
adv.
), duafoje, bis.

secret
, sekret-o.

secretary
, sekretari-o.

section
, sekci-o, part-o, er-o (
276
).

see
, vid-i;
— to
, zorg-i pri.

seed
, sem-o.

seek
, serĉ-i;
— advice of
, konsult-i.

seem
, ŝajn-i;
—ing
, ŝajn-a, kvazaŭ-a.

seize
, kapt-i.

select
, elekt-i.

self
(
reflexive
),
see
39, 40, 44; (
intensive
), mem (
219
).

self-command
, aplomb-o.

sell
, vend-i.

senate
, senat-o.

send
, send-i.

sense
, prudent-o, saĝ-o; (
meaning
), senc-o; (
feeling
), sent-o.

sentence
, fraz-o; (
legal
), juĝ-o, kondamn-o.

separate
(
intrans.
), disiĝ-i, disir-i; (
distinct
), apart-a.

September
, septembr-o.

serene
, trankvil-a.

series
, seri-o, vic-o.

serious
, serioz-a, grav-a.

serve
, serv-i; (
be good for
), taŭg-i por.

set
, met-i; (
of the sun
), subir-i; (
type
), kompost-i;
— free
, liberig-i;
— out (start)
, forir-i, ekir-i.

seven
(
adj.
), sep (
136
).

several
, kelk-aj, kelk-e.

severe
, sever-a.

sew
, kudr-i.

shade
(
shadow
), ombr-o; (
tint
) nuanc-o; (
screen
), ŝirmil-o.

shaft
(
of vehicle
), timon-o.

shake
(
trans.
), sku-i; (
oscillate
), ŝancel-i;
— hands
, manprem-i.

sham
, pretekst-i.

shape
, form-o;
—ly
, beltali-a.

share
, partopren-i, divid-i, part-o, porci-o.

sharp
, akr-a; (
pointed
), pint-a.

shatter
, frakas-i.

shave
, raz-i.

shawl
, ŝal-o.

she
(
pronoun
), ŝi (
32, 37, 42
).

shear
, tond-i.

sheep
, ŝaf-o.

shelf
, bret-o.

shell
, ŝel-o; (
of mollusk
), konk-o;
to remove the —
, senŝelig-i.

shelter
, ŝirm-i.

shepherd
, paŝtist-o.

shield
, ŝild-o; (
protect
), ŝirm-i.

shin-bone
, tibi-o.

shine
, bril-i, lum-i.

ship
, ŝip-o.

shirt
, ĉemiz-o.

shoe
, ŝu-o.

shoot
(
with gun, etc.
), paf-i.

shop
, butik-o.

shore
, bord-o, marbord-o.

short
, mallong-a;
—sighted
, miop-a;
—hand
, stenografi-o.

shoulder
, ŝultr-o.

shove
, ŝov-i.

shovel
, ŝovel-i.

show
(
trans.
), montr-i.

shrill
, akr-a, akrason-a.

shun
, evit-i.

shut
(trans.), ferm-i.

side
, flank-o;
—board
, telermebl-o;
—walk
, trotuar-o;
—wise
, oblikv-a.

sift
, kribr-i.

sigh
, sopir-i.

sign
, sign-o;
— the name
, subskrib-i.

signify
, signif-i.

silent
, silent-a (
239
).

silk
, silk-o.

silver
, arĝent-o.

similar
, simil-a.

simple
, simpl-a.

sin
, pek-i.

since
(
conj.
), ĉar, tial ke (
83
); (
prep.
), de, depost (
89
); (
adv.
), de tiam.

sing
, kant-i.

single
, sol-a, unuop-a;
— man (unmarried man)
, fraŭl-o.

sit
, sid-i (
239
).

six
(
adj.
), ses (
136
).

sketch
, skiz-i.

skill
, lertec-o;
trial of —
, konkurs-o.

skin
(
human
), haŭt-o; (
of animals
), fel-o.

skirt
, jup-o.

sky
, ĉiel-o.

slanting
, oblikv-a, klin-a.

slate
(
stone
), ardez-o.

slaughter
, buĉ-i.

slave
, sklav-o.

sleep
, dorm-i;
lull to —
, lul-i.

sleeve
, manik-o.

slide
, glit-i.

slime
, ŝlim-o.

slipper
, pantofl-o.

sly
, ruz-a.

smear
, ŝmir-i.

smell
(
trans.
), flar-i; (
intrans.
), odor-i.

smile
, ridet-i.

smoke
, fum-i.

smooth
, glat-a; (
polished
), polurit-a.

sneeze
, tern-i.

snow
, neĝ-i.

so
(
conj.
), do; (
adv.
), (
thus
), tiel (
88, 156
); (
therefore
), tial (
78
);
— much
, tiom (
104, 164
).

society
, societ-o.

Socrates
, Sokrat-o.

sofa
, kanap-o.

soft
, mol-a.

soil
, ter-o; soiled, malpur-a.

soldier
, soldat-o; (
professional
), militist-o.

sole
, sol-a; (
of foot
), pland-o; (
of shoe
), ledpland-o.

solemn
, solen-a.

some
, kelk-a, kelk-e, iom (
217
);
—one
,
—how
, etc.,
see table
, 235.

son
, fil-o.

soon
(
adv.
), baldaŭ.

sorcerer
, sorĉist-o.

sort
, spec-o, klas-o; (
put in order
), ordig-i, enfakig-i.

soul
, anim-o.

sound
(
intrans.
), son-i; (
of bells
), sonor-i; (
in good condition
), bonstat-a.

soup
, sup-o.

sour
, acid-a, maldolĉ-a.

south
, sud-o.

sow
, sem-i.

space
, spac-o.

spacious
, vast-a, grandspac-a, grandampleks-a.

Spaniard
, hispan-o.

spare
(save), ŝpar-i; (
pardon
), pardon-i.

sparrow
, paser-o.

speak
, parol-i (
77
).

spear
, lanc-o.

special
, special-a, apart-a.

specialty
, fak-o.

species
, spec-o.

specimen
, specimen-o, model-o.

spectre
, fantom-o.

speed
, rapid-o, rapidec-o.

spell
, silab-i; (
witchcraft
), sorĉaĵ-o.

spend
(
money
), elspez-i; (
time
), pasig-i.

speso
, spes-o (
285
).

spider
, arane-o.

spin
, ŝpin-i.

spinach
, spinac-o.

spite
, malic-o;
in — of
, (
prep.
), malgraŭ, spite.

splash
(
trans.
), plaŭd-i.

splendor
, pomp-o, bril-o, belegec-o.

split
(
trans.
), fend-i.

spoil
(
trans.
), difekt-i.

spoke
(
of wheel
), radi-o.

spoon
, kuler-o.

spot
, makul-i.

spout
(
liquids
), ŝpruc-i.

spring
(
season
), printemp-o; (
of water
), font-o.

sprite
, kobold-o, fe-o.

spruce
(
tree
), pice-o.

spurt
(
of liquids
), ŝpruc-i.

spy
, spion-o; (
catch sight of
), ekvid-i;
—glass
, lorn-o.

square
, kvadrat-o; (
public
), plac-o.

stain
, makul-i.

stair
(
staircase
), ŝtupar-o.

stag
, cerv-o.

stake
(
of palisade
), palis-o.

stamp
(
officially
), stamp-i; (
with foot
), piedfrap-i;
postage —
, poŝtmark-o.

stand
, star-i (
239
); (
endure
), sufer-i, elport-i.

standard
(
model
), model-o; (
flag
), standard-o.

star
, stel-o; (
any heavenly body
), astr-o.

starch
, amel-o.

state
(
condition
), stat-o; (
political
), ŝtat-o; (
governed body
), regn-o.

station
(
state
), stat-o; (
railway, etc.
), staci-o, stacidom-o.

stay
, rest-i.

steady
, firm-a, konstant-a, nemovebl-a.

steal
, ŝtel-i, rab-i (
252
).

steam
, vapor-o.

steel
, ŝtal-o.

steep
, krut-a.

step
, paŝ-i; (
of stairs
), ŝtup-o.

stern
, sever-a.

stew
(
trans.
), stuf-i.

stick
, baston-o; (
adhere
), algluiĝ-i.

still
(
silent
), silent-a; (
adv.
), ankoraŭ; jam; (
conj.
), tamen.

stimulate
, stimul-i, incit-i.

sting
, pik-i.

stipulate
, kondiĉ-o.

stocking
, ŝtrump-o.

stomach
, stomak-o.

stone
, ŝton-o.

stoop
, kliniĝ-i; (
entrance porch
), peron-o.

stop
(
intrans.
), halt-i; (
leave off
), ĉes-i;
— up
, ŝtop-i.

stopper
, ŝtopil-o.

store
(
shop
), butik-o; (
warehouse
), magazen-o, konservej-o, tenej-o.

story
(
tale
), fabel-o, rakont-o; (
of house
), etaĝ-o.

stove
, forn-o.

straight
, rekt-a.

strange
, strang-a, kurioz-a; (
foreign
), fremd-a.

strap
, rimen-o.

straw
, pajl-o.

strawberry
, frag-o.

streak
, stri-o;
make a —
, strek-i.

street
, strat-o;
— arab
, bub-o.

street-car
, tramveturil-o;
— line
, tramvoj-o.

stress
, akcent-o; (
force
), fort-o.

stretch
(
trans.
), etend-i; (
forcibly
), streĉ-i.

string
, ŝnur-o; (
shoelace
), laĉ-o;
— bean
, fazeol-o.

strike
, frap-i, bat-i; (
of laborers
), strik-o;
— out
, trastrek-i.

strip
(
of paper, cloth, etc.
), banderol-o;
— off
, senig-i.

stripe
, stri-o.

strive
, pen-i.

strong
, fort-a.

struggle
, barakt-i.

student
, student-o; (
person studying
), studant-o.

study
, stud-i.

stuff
, ŝtof-o; (
furniture, etc.
), rembur-i.

stump
, stump-o.

style
, stil-o, mod-o, fason-o.

subject
(
theme
), tem-o; (
grammatical
), subjekt-o; (
ruled
), regat-o.

subscribe
, subskrib-i; (
to magazine, etc.
), abon-i.

substance
, substanc-o.

succeed
, sukces-i; (
fare well
), prosper-i; (
follow
), sekv-i, postven-i.

succulent
, suk-a, sukplen-a.

such
, tia (
65
); (
adv.
), tiel (
88
).

sudden
, subit-a, neatendit-a.

suffer
, sufer-i, toler-i; (
permit
), permes-i.

suffice
, sufiĉ-i.

suffix
, sufiks-o.

suffocate
(
trans.
), sufok-i.

sugar
, suker-o.

suggest
, sugesti-i, propon-i.

suit
(
of clothes
), vest-oj, komplet-o; (
at law
), proces-o.

suitable
, konven-a, konform-a, taŭg-a, dec-a.

suite
(
of rooms
), apartament-o.

sulphur
, sulfur-o.

sum
, sum-o; (
total
), tut-o.

summarize
, resum-i.

summer
, somer-o;
—house
, laŭb-o.

summit
, pint-o, supr-o.

sun
, sun-o.

Sunday
, dimanĉ-o.

superior
, super-a; (
person
), superul-o.

superstition
, superstiĉ-o.

supply
, liver-i, proviz-i.

suppose
, supoz-i; opini-i.

sure
, cert-a.

surface
, supraĵ-o.

surprise
, surpriz-i.

suspect
, suspekt-i.

suspend
, pendig-i.

suspenders
, ŝelk-o.

swallow
, glut-i; (
bird
), hirund-o.

swamp
, marĉ-o.

swan
, cign-o.

swear
, ĵur-i.

Swede
, sved-o.

sweep
(
floors, etc.
), bala-i.

sweet
, dolĉ-a;
—potato
, batat-o.

sweetmeat
, bombon-o, sukeraĵ-o, konfitaĵ-o;
be fond of —
, frand-i.

swim
, naĝ-i.

swine
, pork-o.

swing
(
trans.
), sving-i; (
balance
), balanc-i (
279
).

Swiss
, svis-o.

swoon
, sven-i.

sword
, glav-o.

syllable
, silab-o.

Syracuse
, Sirakuz-o.

T.

T.

table
(
furniture
), tabl-o; (
tabulation
), tabel-o.

tail
, vost-o.

tailor
, tajlor-o.

take
, pren-i; (
magazines, etc.
), abon-i;
— in (money)
, enspez-i;
— place
, okaz-i;
— note of
, observ-i, rimark-i;
— oath
, ĵur-i;
— steps toward accomplishing
, klopod-i;
— pleasure in
, ĝu-i;
— the attention of
, distr-i.

tale
, fabel-o.

talent
, talent-o.

tall
, alt-a, altkresk-a, grand-a.

talon
, ungeg-o.

tap
(rap), frapet-i; (
faucet
), kran-o.

tariff
, tarif-o.

task
, task-o.

taste
, gust-o, gustum-i.

tax
, impost-o.

tea
, te-o;
— caddy
, teuj-o (
181
);
—pot
, tekruĉ-o.

teach
, instru-i.

tear
, ŝir-i; (
of the eye
), larm-o.

tease
, turmentet-i, ĉagren-i.

tedious
, ted-a, enuig-a, lacig-a.

telegraph
, telegraf-i.

telephone
, telefon-i.

telescope
, teleskop-o.

tell
, dir-i, rakont-i (
77
);
— lies
, mensog-i.

temper
, humor-o;
lose the —
, koler-i.

temple
(
of the head
), tempi-o; (
building
), templ-o.

tempt
, tent-i.

ten
(
adj.
), dek (
136
).

tender
, delikat-a, mol-a, kares-a.

tenor
(
voice
), tenor-o; (
course
), daŭr-o.

tent
, tend-o.

term
(
word
), termin-o; (
condition
), kondiĉ-o; (
time
), templim-o.

terrace
, teras-o.

territory
, teritori-o.

terror
, terur-o.

test
, prov-i, ekzamen-i.

texture
, kvalit-o; (
thing woven
), teksaĵ-o.

than
(
conj.
), ol (
82, 97, 98
).

thank
, dank-i (
265
).

that
(
conj.
), ke (
53, 83, 105, 259, 262
); (
pronoun
), tiu (
56
); tio (
233, 234
);
— kind
, tia (
65
); (
adv.
), tiel (
88, 156
);
— way
, tiamanier-e, tiel (
88
);
— much
, tiel mult-e, tiom (
104, 164
); (
when
) (
adv.
), kiam (
155
).

thaw
(
intrans.
), degel-i.

the
(
article
), la (11, 47, 201, 280, a); (
adv.
), ju, des (
84
).

theatre
, teatr-o.

theme
, tem-o.

then
(
conj.
), do; (
adv.
), tiam (
73
); (
afterwards
), post-e.

theory
, teori-o.

there
(
adv.
), tie (
68
); (
adv. calling attention
), jen (
228
);
see also
51.

therefore
(
adv.
), tial (
78
); pro tio, sekv-e.

they
(
pronoun
), ili (
32, 37, 42
); (
indefinite
), oni (
54
).

thick
, dik-a, dens-a.

thigh
, femur-o.

thing
, afer-o, objekt-o, aĵ-o (
227
);
any—
,
what —
, etc.,
see table
, 235.

think
, pens-i; (
have the opinion
), opini-i.

(be) thirsty
, soif-i.

this
(
pronoun
), tio ĉi (
233, 234
); (
pronoun and adj.
), tiu ĉi (
60
);
all —
, ĉio ĉi.
See table
, 235.

thong
, rimen-o.

thorn
, dorn-o.

thou
(
pronoun
), ci (
40
).

though
(
conj.
), kvankam;
as —
, kvazaŭ (
250
).

thousand
(
adj.
), mil (
142
).

thread
, faden-o;
— a needle
, enkudrilig-i fadenon.

threaten
, minac-i.

three
(
adj.
), tri (
136
).

threshold
, sojl-o.

thrifty
, ŝparem-a.

throat
, gorĝ-o.

throne
, tron-o.

throng
, amas-o, ar-o (
126
).

through
(
prep.
), tra (
46, 160
); (
by means of
), per (
64
); (
because of
), pro (
86
), de (
170
).

throw
, ĵet-i.

thumb
, dika fingr-o.

thunder
, tondr-i.

Thursday
, ĵaŭd-o.

thus
(
adv.
), tiel (
88, 156
), tiamanier-e.

ticket
, bilet-o;
— window
, giĉet-o.

tickle
, tikl-i.

tie
, lig-i; (
shoes, etc.
), laĉ-i.

tiger
, tigr-o.

tile
, kahel-o; (
brick
), brik-o.

till
(
money box
), kas-o; (
prep.
), ĝis (
46, 89
);
— the soil
, terkultur-i.

time
(
in general
), temp-o; (
occasion
), foj-o (
127
); (
epoch
), epok-o; (
of day
), hor-o.

tin
(
metal
), stan-o;
— plate (sheet iron covered with tin
), lad-o.

tinkle
, tint-i.

tint
, nuanc-o, kolor-o.

tire
(
trans.
), lacig-i, enuig-i; (
pneumatic
), pneŭmatik-o.

to
(
prep.
), al (
46, 160, 251, 252
); ĝis (
46, 89
).

toad
, buf-o.

toast
(
bread
), panrostaĵ-o; (
sentiment
), tost-o.

tobacco
, tabak-o.

today
(
adv.
), hodiaŭ (
93, 171
).

toe
, piedfingr-o.

toilet
, tualet-o.

tolerate
, toler-i, sufer-i.

tomato
, tomat-o.

tomb
, tomb-o.

tomorrow
(
adv.
), morgaŭ (
93, 171
).

tone
, ton-o.

tongue
(
of the body
), lang-o; (
of vehicle
), timon-o; (
language
), lingv-o.

too
(
adv.
), tro; (
too much
), tro multe, tro.

tool
, il-o (
63
).

tooth
, dent-o.

top
, supr-o.

torment
, turment-i.

total
, tut-o.

touch
, tuŝ-i; (
feel with the fingers, etc.
), palp-i;
sense of —
, palpad-o;
— the heart of
, kortuŝ-i.

toward
(
prep.
), al (
46, 160, 251, 252
).

tower
, tur-o;
— above
, superstar-i.

trace
, sign-o, postsign-o.

trade
(
occupation
), meti-o; (
commerce
), komerc-o; (
exchange
), interŝanĝ-i.

train
(
of cars
), vagonar-o; (
of dress
), trenaĵ-o.

tram
, tram-o;
—way
, tramvoj-o;
— car
, tramveturil-o.

tranquil
, trankvil-a; kviet-a.

translate
, traduk-i.

travel
, vojaĝ-i; (
by vehicle
), vetur-i.

tray
, plet-o.

treacherous
, perfid-a.

treasure
, trezor-o.

treasurer
, kasist-o.

treasury
, kas-o.

treat
(
in speech or writing
), trakt-i; (
for illness
), kurac-i; (
act towards
), kondut-i kontraŭ; (
regale
), regal-i.

treatise
, traktat-o.

tree
, arb-o.

tremble
, trem-i; (
vacillate
), ŝanceliĝ-i.

trial
, juĝa aŭskultado, esplorad-o; (
of skill
), konkurs-o; (
affliction
), malĝoj-o, sufer-o; (
test
), prov-o, ekzamen-o; (
attempt
), prov-o.

trifle
, bagatel-o.

triumph
, triumf-o.

tropic
, tropik-o.

trot
, trot-i.

trousers
, pantalon-o.

trunk
(
chest with lid
), kofr-o; (
of tree
), trunk-o.

trust
, fid-i, konfid-i; (
financial
), trust-o.

truth
, ver-o.

try
(
legally
), juĝ-i; (
strive
), pen-i; (
attempt, test
), prov-i.

tub
, kuv-o.

tube
, tub-o.

tuber
, tuber-o.

Tuesday
, mard-o.

tumbler
(
for drinking
), glas-o; (
juggler
), ĵonglist-o.

tune
, ari-o, melodi-o.

Turk
, turk-o.

turkey
, meleagr-o.

turn
(
trans.
), turn-i; (
in a series
), vic-o.

turnip
, nap-o.

turnstile
, giĉet-o.

twilight
, krepusk-o.

twist
(
trans.
), tord-i.

twitter
, pep-i.

two
(
adj.
), du (
136
).

tyrant
, tiran-o.

U.

U.

umbrella
, ombrel-o.

uncle
, onkl-o.

unanimous
, unuvoĉ-a, unuanim-a.

uncommon
, kurioz-a, nekomun-a.

unconcerned
, indiferent-a; nezorgem-a.

under
(
prep.
), sub (
121, 160
).

underline
, substrek-i.

understand
, kompren-i.

undertake
, entrepren-i;
— initiative work
, klopod-i.

undeviating
, rekt-a.

unfailing
(
adv.
), nepr-e, cert-e.

unimportant
, indiferent-a, negrav-a.

union
, unuig-o, unuiĝ-o, kunig-o, kuniĝ-o.

universe
, univers-o.

university
, universitat-o.

until
(
prep.
), ĝis (
89
)

up
(
adv.
), supre, supren (
121
);
— to
, ĝis (
46
).

upholster
, rembur-i.

upper
, supr-a.

upon
(
prep.
), sur (
160
).

upright
, just-a; (
vertical
), vertikal-a.

urge
, urĝ-i, insiste pet-i.

upset
(
trans.
), renvers-i.

utmost
, ekstrem-a, ebl-o (161,
see also
162).

V.

V.

(be) vacant
, vak-i, esti neokupata.

vacillate
, ŝanceliĝ-i.

vagabond
, vagist-o.

vain
(
futile
), van-a; senutil-a, senfrukt-a; (
proud
), vant-a, fier-a;
in —
, vane.

valise
, valiz-o.

valley
, val-o.

value
(
appraise
), taks-i; (
like
), ŝat-i;
have the — of
, valor-i.

vanquish
, venk-i.

vapor
, vapor-o.

varied
, divers-a, malsimil-a.

vase
, vaz-o.

vast
, vast-a, grand-a.

vaunt
, fanfaron-i, vantparol-i.

veal
, bovidaĵ-o (207, c).

vegetable
(
edible
), legom-o; (
plant growth
), vegetaĵ-o, kreskaĵ-o (227, a).

vegetarian
, vegetar-a.

vegetate
, veget-i.

veil
, vual-o.

vein
, vejn-o.

velvet
, velur-o.

veranda
, verand-o.

verify
, konstat-i, kontrol-i.

vermicelli
, vermiĉel-o.

verse
, vers-o; (
poesy
), poezi-o.

vertical
, vertikal-a.

very (very much)
(
adv.
), tre, tre multe; (
adj.
), sam-a, ident-a, (
intensive
) mem (
219
).

vex
, ĉagren-i.

vibrate
(
intrans.
), vibr-i.

vice
(
wickedness
), malvirt-o; (
prefix
), vic-.

vie
, konkur-i.

village
, vilaĝ-o.

vindication
, apologi-o.

vinegar
, vinagr-o.

violet
, viol-o.

violin
, violon-o.

virtue
, virt-o.

visage
, vizaĝ-o.

visit
, vizit-i.

vivid
, hel-a.

voice
, voĉ-o.

volume
(
book
), volum-o; (
of a body
), volumen-o.

vote
, voĉdon-i, balot-i.

vowel
, vokal-o.

voyage
, vojaĝ-i.

W.

W.

wade
, vad-i.

waffle
, vafl-o.

wager
, vet-i.

wages
, salajr-o.

wait
(
wait for
), atend-i;
— on
, serv-i.

waiter
(
in restaurant, etc.
), kelner-o.

waist
, tali-o;
—coat
, veŝt-o

wake
(
trans.
), vek-i.

walk
, marŝ-i; (
for pleasure
), promen-i; (
of park, etc.
), ale-o;
side—
, trotuar-o.

wall
, mur-o.

waltz
, vals-i.

wander
, vag-i.

want
(
need
), bezon-i; (
desire
), dezir-i, vol-i; (
be lacking
), mank-i; (
extremity
), mizereg-o.

war
, milit-i.

wardrobe
(
garments
), vestar-o; (
furniture
), ŝrank-o, vestoŝrank-o.

warehouse
, magazen-o.

warm
, varm-a;
make —
, varmig-i, hejt-i.

warn
, avert-i; (
give notice
), aviz-i, antaŭsciig-i.

wash
, lav-i.

waste
(
prodigality
), malŝpar-o; (
refuse
), forĵetaĵ-o; (
desert
), dezert-o.

watch
(
look at
), rigardad-i; (
timepiece
), poŝhorloĝ-o;
— over
, gard-i.

water
, akv-o;
— color
, akvarel-o;
—fall
, kaskad-o.

wave
, ond-o; (
flutter, brandish
), flirt-i, sving-i.

wax
, vaks-o.

way
(
manner
), manier-o; (
custom
), kutim-o; (
method
), metod-o; (
means
), rimed-o; (
road
), voj-o;
— in
, enirejo;
this —
,
any—, etc.
,
see table
, 235.

we
(
pronoun
), ni (
32, 37
).

wear
, port-i;
— out
, eluz-i.

(be) wearied
, enu-i.

weather
, veter-o;
—cock
, ventoflag-o.

weave
, teks-i; (
plait
), plekt-i.

Wednesday
, merkred-o.

week
, semajn-o.

weep
, plor-i.

weigh
(
trans.
), pes-i; (
intrans.
), (
be heavy
), pez-i; (
meditate upon
), pripens-i (264, c).

welcome
, bonven-i; bone akcept-i;
you are —
, (
"no thanks needed"
), estas nenio, volonte farite.

well
(
healthy
), san-a; (
for water
), put-o; (
adv.
), bon-e; (
interjection
), nu (
273
), bon-e;
— informed
, kler-a;
— nigh
(
adv.
), preskaŭ.

west
, okcident-o.

wet
, malsekig-i, tremp-i.

whale
, balen-o.

what
(
pronoun
), kio (
233, 234
); (
pronominal adj.
), kiu (106, 146);
— kind
,
— way
,
— time
,
etc.
,
see table
, 235.

wheat
, tritik-o.

wheel
, rad-o.

when
(
adv.
), kiam (
125, 155
); (
while
), dum (
96
).

where
(
adv.
), kie (
118, 151
);
—fore
, kial (
129
), tial (
78
).

whether
(
conj.
), ĉu (30, 66, a).

which
(
pronoun
), kio (
233, 234
); (
pronoun and adj.
), kiu (106, 146);
— way
,
— kind
,
etc
.
see table
, 235.

while
(
prep.
), dum (
120, 159
); (
conj.
), dum (
96
); (concessive), kvankam; a —, iom da tempo.

whip
, vip-i.

whistle
, fajf-i; (
hiss
), sibl-i.

white
, blank-a; whitish, dubeblank-a.

who
(
pronoun
), kiu (
106, 143
); whose, kies (
107, 147
).

whole
(
entire
), tut-a.

why
(
adv.
), kial (
129
), pro kio.

wicket
, giĉet-o.

wide
, larĝ-a;
make —
, plilarĝig-i, etend-i.

widow
, vidvin-o; widower, vidv-o.

wig
, peruk-o.

wild
, sovaĝ-a.

(be) willing
, vol-i.

willingly
, volont-e.

wilt
, velk-i.

wind
, vent-o, survolv-i; (
twist
), tord-i; (
a watch
), streĉ-i.

winding
, tord-a.

window
, fenestr-o;
ticket —
, giĉet-o.

wine
, vin-o.

winter
, vintr-o.

wipe
, viŝ-i.

wise
, saĝ-a.

wish
, vol-i, dezir-i.

witch
, sorĉistin-o;
—craft
, sorĉ-o.

with
(
prep.
), kun (
70, 76, 120, 159, 160
); (
by means of
), per (
64
); (
agent of the passive
), de (
169
); je (
260
);
— regard to
, rilate (
266
);
—draw
, elir-i, forir-i;
(= having)
, havante (
222
).

wither
, velk-i.

without
(
prep.
), sen (
248
).

(give) witness
, atest-i.

witty
, sprit-a.

woe
, malĝoj-o; (
interjection
), ve (
273
).

wolf
, lup-o.

wonder
, mir-i.

woo
, amindum-i.

wood
, lign-o.

wool
, lan-o.

word
, vort-o; (
spoken
), parol-o.

work
, labor-i; (
of machinery
), funkci-i; (
literary composition
), verk-o.

world
, mond-o.

worm
, verm-o.

worship
, ador-i; (
divine service
), Diserv-o.

(be) worth
, valor-i.

worthy
, ind-a (
154
).

wound
, vund-i.

wreath
, girland-o.

wrestle
, barakt-i.

wretch
, fripon-o, kanajl-o;
—ed
, mizer-a, aĉ-a (
272
).

wrinkle
, sulket-o, faldet-o.

write
, skrib-i; (
books, articles, music
), verk-i.

wrong
, malprav-a, erar-a, maljust-a.

Y.

Y.

yawn
, osced-i; (
open
), fendiĝ-i.

year
, jar-o.

yearn
, sopir-i; dezireg-i.

yellow
, flav-a;
—ish
, dubeflav-a.

yes
(
adv.
), jes (
171
).

yesterday
(
adv.
), hieraŭ (
93, 171
);
day before —
, antaŭ-hieraŭ.

yet
(
adv.
), ankoraŭ; jam; (
conj.
), tamen.

yoke
, jug-o.

you
(
pronoun
), vi (
32, 37, 39
);
see also
oni (
54
).

young
, jun-a; (
offspring
), id-o (
207
).

Z.

Z.

zeal
, fervor-o.

zenith
, zenit-o.

zero
, nul-o.

zigzag
, zigzag-o.

zinc
, zink-o.

zone
, zon-o.

zoology
, zoologi-o.

INDEX.

The references are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. The following abbreviations are used: ace. = accusative; adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; expr. = expressed; ftn. = footnote; inf. = infinitive; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive. For Esperanto words whose use or meaning is specially explained, references are given in the Vocabulary.

The references point to sections, unless the page (p.) is specified. The following abbreviations are used: ace. = accusative; adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; expr. = expressed; ftn. = footnote; inf. = infinitive; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive. For Esperanto words that have specific explanations for their use or meaning, references can be found in the Vocabulary.

A.
Abbreviations
, 286; of ordinals, p. 107, ftn.
Abstract nouns
, 202.
Accent
, 8; of elided word, 280, b.
Accompaniment
, 70; distinguished from instrumentality and opposition, p. 49, ftn.
Accordance
, expr. by
laŭ
, 191.
Active voice
, participles of, 108, 119, 152; tenses of, see Tenses; synopsis of, 267.
Accusative
, ending, 23; of adj., 24; of pronoun, 37; of adv., 69, 121; of direction, 46, 108; of measure, 139; of time, 91; distinguished from temporal adv., 94; with temporal adv., 93; when avoided, 92; after adv., 266; with intrans. verb, 264; with nouns expressing motion, 263; in composition, p. 132, ftn.; instead of prepositional phrase, 265, 266; not used after prep., 36, (
al, ĝis, tra
) 46, (
preter
) p. 139, ftn.; not used with article, 25; not used with predicates, 25, 210; "cognate," see acc. with intrans. verbs, 264, a.
Adjectives
, defined, 12; ending of, 12; formation of, 116, (from adv.) 171, (from prep.) 159; attributive, 13; acc. of, 24; plural of, 17; agreement, (with nouns) 17, 21, 24, (with pronouns) 33, (with words connected by
nek
) 31; comparison of, 74; possessive, 43, (pronominal use of) 45; predicate, 19, (after trans, verbs) 210; use of, distinguished from adv. with
da
, 103; demonstrative, 65; distributive, 177; indefinite, 208; interrogative, 112; negative, 224; reflexive possessive, 44; relative, 150; causative verbs from roots of, 214, a; intrans. verbs from roots of, 232, c; cardinal, 136; ordinal, 149.
Adverbs
, defined, 66; primary, 66; derived, 79; (from prep.) 120; demonstrative, (
tie
) 68, (
tiam
) 73, (
tial
) 78, (
tiel
) 88, (
tiom
) 104; interrogative, (
kie
) 118, (
kiam
) 123, (
kial
) 129, (
kiel
) 134, (
kiom
) 140, (
ĉu
) 30, p. 38, ftn.; relative, (
kie
) 151, (
kiam
) 155, (
kiel
) 156, p. 170, ftn., (
kiom
) 164; distributive, (
ĉie
) 182, (
ĉiam
) iS7, (
ĉial
) 188, (
ĉiel
) 193, (
ĉiom
) 194; indefinite, (
ie
) 209, (
iam
) 212, (
ial
) 213, (
iel
) 216, (
iom
) 217; negative, (
nenie
) 225, (
neniam
) 226, (
nenial
) 229, (
neniel
) 230, (
neniom
) 231, (
ne
) 27, 66, a; generalizing, (
ajn
) 236; numeral, 158; position of, 66, a; expressing direction of motion, 69, 121; with expressions of time, 93; distinguishing from acc. of time, 94; with acc., 266; with prep., 87; calling attention, (
jen
) 228; causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; as interjections, p. 216, ftn.; derivation of words from primary, 171.
Adverbial clauses
, p. 168, ftn.; participle, 222, (translating "without") p. 193, ftn.
Adversative conjunctions
, p. 32, ftn.
Advice
, expression of, 257, 259.
Affectionate diminutives
, 283 (also 198, and ftn., p. 221).
Affirmation
, 66.
Affixes
, see Prefixes, Suffixes.
Agency
, expr. by
de
, 169.
Agreement
, of attributive adj., 17, (with acc.) 24; of predicate noun and adj., 21; of adj. with two or more nouns, 17; of adj. with words connected by
nek
, 31; of adj. with pronouns, 33; of participle, 108; of nouns in apposition, 48.
Alphabet
, I.
Anticipation
, expr. by clause, 97; by inf. with prep., 98.
Aoristic tenses
, explained, p. 78, ftn.; conjugation of, (present) 14, (past) 35, (future) 55, (conditional) 241, (imperative), 254.
Apposition
, 48.
Argumentative conjunction
, p. 32, ftn.
Article
, definite, 11; invariable, 18, 25; for possessive adj., 47; with possessive adj., 45; generic, 201, 218, b, elision of, 280, a; no indefinite, II.
Assumption
, defined, 240; implied, 244.
Augmentatives
, 122.
Auxiliary verbs
, 109.
C.
Cardinal numerals
, 136; formation of, 142.
Case
, see Accusative, Dative, Nominative, Possessive.
Causative verbs
, 214.
Cause
, expr. by clause, 83; by
pro
, 86; by
ke
, p. 222, ftn.
Characteristic
, expr. by
kun
, 76; by adverbial participle, 222. Clauses, defined, p. 34, ftn.; adverbial, p. 168, ftn.; causal, 83; of anticipation, 97; of duration of time, 96; of imaginative comparison, 250; of purpose, 262; of result, 105; subordinate imperative, 259.
"Cognate acc.
," see acc. with intrans. verbs, 264.
Collective nouns
, 126.
Collective sense given by use of da
, 103.
Commands
, expression of, 256; in subordinate clause, 259.
Complement of prep.
, 36.
Complementary inf.
, 29.
Comparison
, of adj., 74; of adv., 79; of words expressing quantity, 81; containing
ol
, 82;
ju
and
des
in, 84.
Composition
, see Compounds.
Compound tenses
, explained, 109; of impersonal verbs, 179; conjugation of, see Tenses.
Compounds
, dependent, 176; descriptive, 167; possessive, 184.
Conclusion (of conditions) defined
, 240; (of letters), see Correspondence.
Concrete nouns
, formation of, 227.
Conditional mood
, 241; compound tenses of, 242; in contrary to fact conditions, 246; in less vivid conditions, 243; independent use of, 244; of
devi
, 247; conditional sentences, see Conditions. Conditions, defined, 240; contrary to fact, 246; factual, 240; less vivid, 243; vivid, p. 189, ftn.; summary of, 249.
Conjugation
, 34; synopsis of, 267; of tenses, see Tenses.
Conjunctions
, defined, 52; coordinating, 52; subordinating, 53, (not omitted) p. 34, ftn.;
, p. 32, ftn.;
kaj
, 26, p. 32, ftn.;
ke
, (in indirect statements), 53, (in causal clauses) 83, p. 222, ftn.; (in result clause) 105, (in purpose clause) 262, (in subordinate imperative clause) 259;
kvazaŭ
, 250;
nek
, 31, p. 32, ftn.;
se
, 240;
sed
, p. 32, ftn.;
tamen
, p. 32, ftn.;
do
, p. 32, ftn.; see p. 110, ftn.
Connection
, expr. by
de
, 49; indefinite, expr. by
je
, 260.
Consent
, expression of, 257, (in subordinate clauses) 259.
Consonants
, combinations of, 6; pronunciation of, 3, names of, 4.
Contrary to fact conditions
, 246.
Coordinating conjunctions
, 52.
Copulative conjunctions
, p. 32, ftn.
Correlative words
, 235.
Correspondence
, 278.
D.
Dates
, expr. by acc., 91; expr. by
antaŭ
, 90; expr. by prep., 89; on letters, see Correspondence, 278.
"Dative
," ethical, of reference, of separation, p. 197, ftn.
Definite quantity
, nouns of, followed by
de
, 100.
Degree
, advs. of, 66, (
tiel
) 88, (
kiel
) 134, 156; highest possible, 162; see also Comparison.
Deliberation
, expression of, 257, (in subordinative clause) 259.
Demonstrative
, pronoun, (
tiu
) 56, (
ĉi tiu
) 60, (
tio, ĉi tio
) 233; adjective, 65; adv., see Adverbs.
Dependent compounds
, 176.
Derivation
, of adv., 79, (from prep.) 120; of words from prep., 159; of words from primary adv., 171.
Descriptive compounds
, 167.
Diminutives
, 198; affectionate, 283.
Diphthongs
, 5.
Direct object
, defined, 23; inf. as, see Complementary inf., 29; clause as, 53, 259; of complementary inf., 29; of participle, 108; of prep., see Complement, 36.
Direction
, expr. by acc. (of noun) 46, 263, (of adv.) 121.
Disjunctive conjunctions
, p. 32, ftn.
Distributive
, prep., see
po
, 175; pronoun, (
ĉiu
) 173, (
ĉio
) 233; adj., 177; adv., see Adverbs.
Double letters
, 6, e.
E.
Elision
, 280.
Emphasis
, by
, 66; by
ja
, 215.
Emphatic negation
, 27.
Ending
, of acc., 23; of adj., 12; of adv., 79; of noun, 10; of plural, 16; of inf., 28; of indicative, 14, 35, 55; of conditional, 241, of imperative, 254; of participle, see Participles.
"Ethical dative
," p. 197, ftn.
Exclamations
, 115; use of
je
in, 260.
Exhortation
, 255.
Expedience
, expressions of, 259.
F.
Factual conditions
, 240.
Feminine nouns
, formation of, 59.
Formation
, of words, 116; of opposites, 67, of feminines, 59; with
-ig-
and
-iĝ-
, 239; from primary words, 159, 171.
Fractions
, 166.
Frequentative verbs
, 218, a.
Future participle
, (active) 152, (passive) 199.
Future tense
, 55, (progressive) 114, (passive) 183, periphrastic, 153, 200.
Future perfect tense
, 148, (passive) 196.
G.
Generic article
, 201. 218, b.
Generalizing adv. ajn
, 236.
H.
Highest degree possible
, 162.
I.
Imaginative comparison
, 250.
Imperative mood
, 254; in commands and prohibitions, 256; in resolve and exhortation, 255, in subordinate clauses, 259;. less peremptory uses of, 257; to express purpose, 262.
Imperfect tense
, 113, (passive) 178.
Impersonal verbs
, 50, compound tenses of, 179; modifiers of, 141.
Impersonally used verbs
, explained, 141; modifiers of, 141.
Inchoative verbs
, 232, a.
Indefinite connection
, expr. by
je
, 260.
Indefinite
, pronoun, (
iu
) 203, (
io
) 233; (personal) 54; adj., 208; advs., see Adverbs; prep., 260; suffix, 268; quantity, expressions of, with
da
, 99, 101.
Independent use of conditional mood
, 244.
Indicative mood
, defined, 241; tenses of, see Synopsis, 267.
"Indirect object
," see
al
.
Indirect quotation
, tenses in, 58; statements in, 53; questions in, p. 38, ftn.; p. 170, ftn.
Infinitive
, defined, 28, 241; ending of, 28; complementary, 29; as subject, 29; modifiers of, 130; synopsis of, 267; with prep., 98; replaced by noun, 218, b.
Instruction
, (orders), requests for, 257, 259.
Instrumentality
, expr. by
per
, 64; distinguished from accompaniment, p. 49, ftn.
Instruments
, formation of names of, 63.
Intensive pronoun
,
mem
, 219.
Intention
, expr. by clause, 259.
Interjections
, 273.
International money system
, 285; weights and measures, 284.
Interrogation
, 30, 66, a.
Interrogative
, pronoun, (
kiu
) 106, (kio) 233; adj., 112; advs., see Adverbs.
Intransitive verbs
, defined, 22; no passive, p. 122, ftn.; from adj. roots, 232, c; from noun roots, advs., preps., suffixes, prefixes, 232, d; from trans, verb roots, 232, b, (table of), 279.
Introductory particle
, not needed, 50, 51.
Invariability
, of article, 18; of
mem
, 219; of verb, 18; of cardinals, 136.
Inversion
, not needed in questions, 30.
L.
Less peremptory uses of imperative
, 257.
Less vivid conditions
, 243.
Letters
, names of, 4; double, pronunciation of, 6, e; see also Correspondence, 278.
Limitation of third personal pronoun
, 42.
M.
Manner
, expr. by
kun
, 76; expr. by.
per
, p. 53, ftn.; by adverbial participle, 222; advs. of, see Adverbs.
Material
, expression of, 197.
Means
, expression of, 64.
Measure
, ace. of, 139; expr. by
je
, 260.
Measures
, weights and, 284.
Metric system
, 284.
Modifiers of impersonally used verbs
, 141.
Money system
, The international, 285.
Mood
, defined, 241; inf., see Infinitive; conditional, 241; imperative, 254; indicative, see 267; in conditions, see Conditions.
Moral obligation
, 247.
Motive or reason
, advs. of, see Adverbs; expr. by clause, 83; expr. by prep., 86.
N.
Names
, of letters, 4; orthography of proper, 128.
Necessity
, expression of, 259.
Negative
, pronoun, (
neniu
) 220; (
nenio
) 233; adj., 224; advs., see Adverbs; conjunction, 31.
"Nominative absolute
," how rendered, p. 169, ftn.
Nominative case
, ending of, (for nouns) 10, (for adj.) 12; of predicate noun and adj., 25, 210; with prep., 36, (
al
,
ĝis
,
tra
) 46.
Noun
, defined, 10, ending of, 10, plural of, 16; acc. of, 23; elision of, 280, b; feminine, 59; numeral, 157; participial, 205; predicate, 20, 211; possessive case of, 49; expressing motion, followed by acc., 263; expressing quantity, followed by
da
, 99, by
de
, 100; replacing inf., 218, b; replacing participial phrase, p. 193, ftn.; from adv., 171; from prep., 159.
Noun roots
, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d.
Number
, see Plural.
Numeral nouns
, 157; advs., 158.
Numerals
, cardinal, 136; formation of, 142; fractional, 166; ordinal, 149; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn.; followed by
el
, 138.
O.
Object
, see Direct object, Indirect object, Complement.
Obligation
, 247, (moral) 247.
Opposites
, formation of, 67; of
pli
and
plej
, 80.
Opposition
, distinguished from accompaniment, p. 49, ftn.
Order
, of word endings, p. 10, ftn.; see also Position.
Ordinal numerals
, 149; advs., 158; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn.
Orthography
, of proper nouns, 128.
P.
Part of the whole
, expression of, (after noun) 99, (after adv.) 101.
Participial nouns
, 205; advs., 222.
Participle
, defined, 108; agreement of, 108; adverbial, 222, (translating "without") p. 193, ftn.; present, 108, (passive) 165; past, 119, (passive) 189; future, 152, (passive) 199.
Particle
, introductory, not needed, 50, 51.
Partitive construction
, p. 74, ftn.
Passive voice
, agent of, 169; participles of, see Participles; tenses of, see Tenses; of
-ig-
formations, 239; distinguished from
-iĝ-
formations, 232, b.
Past tense
, 35, (passive) see Imperfect; past participle, see Participles.
Past periphrastic future
, 153, (passive) 200.
Past inception
, present action with, 131.
Peremptory commands and prohibitions
, 256, 259.
Perfect tense
, 124, (passive) 190; perfect participle, see Past participle.
Periphrastic futures
, 153, (passive) 200.
Permission
, expression of, 269.
Perplexity
, expression of, 257, 259.
Personal pronouns
, 32; acc. of, 37; indefinite, 54; reflexive, 39, 40; limitation of third personal, 42; position of unemphatic, 274.
Place
, expr. by
ĉe
, 125; advs. of, see Adverbs; expr. by
-ej-
, III; 128.
Pluperfect tense
, 135, (passive), 195.
Plural
, of nouns, 16; of pronouns, 56, 106, 203, 173, 220; of adj., 16; of
unu
, 137; none of article, 18; none of pronouns ending in
-o
, 233.
Position
, of attributive adj., 13; of adv., 66, a; of emphatic negative, 27; of unemphatic pronoun, 274; of interrogative adv., 30.
Possession
, expr. by
de
, 49.
Possessive
, adjective, 43; reflexive, 44; article for, 47; ftn., p. 221.
Possessive case of nouns
, 49; of pronouns, (
ties
) 62, (
kies
) 107, 147, (
ĉies
) 174, (
ies
) 204, (
nenies
) 221; see also Possessive adjective, 43.
Possessive compounds
, 184.
"Possessive pronouns
," p. 24, ftn.
Possibility
, expression of, 270.
Predicate
, adj., 19, agreement of, 21; after trans, verbs, 210; noun, 20; agreement of, 21; after trans. verb, 211; clause as, 259.
Prefixes
, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; prep. as, 160, 248; adverb as, 71, 167, a, interjection as, p. 216, ftn.;
bo-
, 277;
dis-
, 245;
duon-
, 277;
ek-
, 206;
eks-
, 281;
ge-
, 271;
mal-
, 67;
pra-
, 282;
re-
, 223.
Prepositions
, defined, 36; with inf., 98; with adv., 87; with other preps., 87; case use with, 36, 46; expressing time relations, 89; as prefixes, 160; word derivation from, 159; advs. from, 120; causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d; making intrans. verbs trans., 264, b, c; see also references in Vocabulary.
Prepositional phrase
, acc. instead of, 265, 266.
Present action with past inception
, 131.
Present periphrastic future
, 153, (passive) 200.
Present participle
, 108, (passive) 165.
Present tense
, 14, (progressive) 110, (passive) 168.
Primary adverbs
, defined, 66; derivation of words from, 171.
Probability
, expression of, 270.
Progressive tenses
, present, 110, future, 114; passive, 200.
Prohibition
, expression of, 256, 259.
Pronominal adjective
, possessive adj. as, 45; pronoun as, (
tiu
) 57, 60, (
kiu
) 106, 146, (
ĉiu
) 173, (
iu
) 203, (
neniu
) 220, (
ambaŭ
) 238.
Pronouns
, defined, 32; agreement with, 33; personal, 32; indefinite personal, 54; reflexive, 38, 39, 40, (in composition) p. 132, ftn.; possessive, p. 24, ftn.; possessive form of, see Possessive case; limitation of third personal, 42; position of unemphatic, 274; correlation of predicative or relative, 234; followed by
el
, 173, p. 115, ftn.; series in
-o
, 233; demonstrative, 56, 60, 233; distributive, 173, 233; indefinite, 203, 233; interrogative, 106, 233; negative, 220, 233; relative, 146; 233; summary, 235;
ambaŭ
, 238; intensive, 219.
Proper nouns
, orthography of, 128.
Protestations
, use of
je
in, 260.
Proximity
, expr. by
ĉi
, 60, 66, p. 229, ftn.
Purpose
, expr. by inf., 98; by imperative, 262; by prep., 95.
Q.
Quantity
, construction with nouns expressing, 99, 100; construction with advs. expressing, 101; advs. of, (
tiom
) 104, (
kiom
) 140, 164, (
ĉiom
) 194, (
iom
) 217, (
neniom
) 231; comparison of advs. expressing, 81.
Questions
, 30; indirect, p. 38, ftn., p. 170, ftn.; of deliberation, perplexity, or for instructions, 257, 259.
Quotations
, indirect, 53, 58.
R.
Reciprocal expressions
, 180.
Reference
, expr. by
al
, 251.
Reflexive pronouns
, of first and second persons, 39; of third person, 40; with substantival inf., 130.
Reflexive possessive adjective
, 44.
Reflexive verbs
, 41; distinguished from verbs in
-iĝ-
, 232, b.
Relative pronoun
, (
kiu
) 146, (
kio
) 233; not omitted, p. 106, ftn.
Relative adjective
, 150; relative adverb, see Adverbs.
Relative clause
, see 146, 233, (temporal) 155, (of manner) 156, (quantitative) 164.
Request
, expression of, 257, 259; for instructions, 257, 259.
Resolve
, expression of, 255.
Result
, clauses of, 105.
Root
, defined, p. 42, ftn.
Route
, expression of, 191.
S.
Salutations
, 115.
Separation
, expr. by
de
, 170; expr. by
al
, 252; by
for
, 71; by
dis-
, 245.
Situation
, expr. by
ĉe
, 125; by adverbial participle, 222.
Source
, expr. by
de
, 170.
Statements
, indirect, 53; tenses in, 58.
Subject
, defined, 15; preceded by verb, 51; inf. as, 130; clause as, 141, 259; of adverbial participle, 222.
Subordinate clause
, defined, 53; imperative in, 259, 262; conditional in, see Conditions, 243, 246.
Subordinating conjunctions
,
ke
, 53, 105, 259 (
tial ke
) 83, p. 222, ftn.; (
por ke
) 262; (not omitted) p. 34, ftn.;
se
, 240;
kvazaŭ
, 250;
ĉu
, p. 38, ftn.
Substantive
, defined, p. 71, ftn.; inf. as, 98, 130; clause as, 53, 259.
Substitution
, expr. by prep., p. 63, ftn.; expr. by prep. with inf., 98; of noun for inf., 218, b, p. 193, ftn.
Suffixes
, causative verbs from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d;
-ad-
, 218;
-aĉ-
, 272;
-aĵ-
, 227;
-an-
, 145;
-ar-
, 126;
-ĉj-
, 283;
-ebl-
, 161;
-ec-
, 202;
-eg-
, 122;
-ej-
, 111;
-em-
, 192;
-er-
, 276;
-estr-
, 253;
-et-
, 198;
-id-
207;
-ig-
, 214, 239, 275;
-iĝ-
, 232, 239, 279;
-il-
, 63;
-in-
, 59;
-ind-
, 154;
-ing-
, 237;
-ist-
, 172, p. 154, ftn.;
-nj-
, 283;
-obl-
, 186;
-on-
, 166;
-op-
, 261;
-uj-
, 181;
-ul-
, 132;
-um-
, 268.
Summary of conditions
, 249.
Superlatives
, (adj.) 74, (adv.) 79; followed by
el
, 75.
Syllables
, 7.
Synonyms
, apparent, (
diri: paroli: rakonti
) 77, (
koni: scii
) 117, (
tempo; fojo
) 127, (
loĝi: vivi
) 133, (
antikva: maljuna: malnova
) p. 128, ftn., 67, (
ĉiu: tuta
) p. 130, ftn., (
indiferenta: nezorga
) p. 162, ftn., (
provi: peni: juĝi
) p. 228, ftn., (
ĝuste: juste: ĵus
) p. 198, ftn., (
ankoraŭ: jam
) p. 124, ftn., p. 112, ftn., (
troviĝi: sin trovi: kuŝi: sidi)
p. 217, ftn.
Synopsis of the verb
, 267.
System
, correlative, 235; metric, 284; of money, 285.
T.
Temporal clauses
, 96, 155.
Temporal adverbs
, 66, (
tiam
) 73, (
kiam
) 123, 155, (
ĉiam
) 187, (
iam
) 212, (
neniam
) 226, (
jam
) p. 124, ftn. (
ankoraŭ
) p. 112, ftn., (
ĵus
) p. 116, ftn.
Tenses
, aoristic, p. 78, ftn.; compound, 109; (of impersonal verbs) 179; in indirect quotations, 58; in conditions, 249; of inf., 267; of conditional, 241, 242; of imperative, 254; present, 14, (progressive) 110, (passive) 168, past, 35, (passive) 178; future, 55, (progressive) 114; (passive) 183; imperfect, 113, (passive) 178; perfect, 124, (passive) 190; pluperfect, 135, (passive) 195; future perfect, 148, (passive) 190; periphrastic, 153, (passive) 200; synopsis of all, 267.
Terminations
, see Endings.
Terms of address
, 163; affectionate, 283, p. 221, ftn.
Time
, of day, 185; expr. by prep., 89; expr. by acc., 91; expr. by clause, 96, 155; expr. by adverbial participle, 222; advs. of, see Temporal adverbs.
Titles
, 163; use of
moŝto
, 258.
Transitive verbs
, defined, 22; formed by
-ig-
, 214; from intrans. roots, 264, b, c; list of some, 275.
U.
Unemphatic words
, position of, (negative) 27, (pronoun) 274.
V.
Verbal nouns in -ad-
, 218, b, p. 193, ftn.
Verbal roots
, causative verbs from, 214, b.
Verbs
, mood of, 241; invariable, 18; causative, 214; frequentative, 218, a; inchoative, 232, a; impersonal, 50; reflexive, 41; trans., defined, 22; trans, from intrans. roots, 275; intrans., defined, 22; intrans. from trans. roots, 232, b, 279; from prep., 159; from adv., 171; conjugation of, 34, (synopsis) 267, preceding the subject, 51; as interjection, p. 216, ftn.; implied, (in comparisons) 82, 156, 250; (in salutations) 115, (in exclamations) 115, 228; with prepositional phrase containing
da
, 102.
Vivid conditions
, p. 189, ftn.
Vowels
, pronunciation of, 2.
W.
Way
, expression of, (manner) 76, (route) 191.
Weights and measures
, 284.
Wish
, expression of, 257, 259.
Words
, correlative, 235; formation of, 116; from prepositions, 159; from primary advs., 171; composition of, see Compounds; order of, in question, 30; see also Position.

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